What types of memory exist? Classification with explanations. Classification of memory according to the duration of storage of material Types of memory for the duration of information storage

• Previous Article Individual differences in people's memory (Nemov R.S.)
• Next Article General idea of ​​memory (Nemov R.S.)

customize font

Classification of types of memory according to the sense organs and the use of mnemonic means: figurative, verbal-logical, motor, emotional, voluntary and involuntary, mechanical and logical, direct and mediated. Features of short-term memory, its volume, mechanisms, connection with consciousness. The phenomenon of substitution is the replacement of information in an overflowing short-term memory. Difficulties in mechanical memorization of names, surnames and the phenomenon of substitution. Acoustic recoding of information in short-term memory. The connection between short-term memory and long-term memory, their relative independence. The subconscious nature of human long-term memory. The connection of long-term memory with speech and thinking, in particular with inner speech. Semantic organization of material in long-term memory.

There are several reasons for classifying the types of human memory. One of them is the division of memory according to the time of storing the material, the other - according to the analyzer that prevails in the processes of storing, storing and reproducing the material. In the first case, instantaneous, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic memory are distinguished. In the second case, they speak of motor, visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, emotional and other types of memory. Consider and give a brief definition of the main of these types of memory.

instant, or iconic, memory is associated with the retention of an accurate and complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the sense organs. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Instantaneous memory is the complete residual impression that arises from the direct perception of stimuli. This is a memory-image.

short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition). In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a preliminary conscious mindset for memorization, but instead with a mindset for the subsequent reproduction of the material. Short-term memory is characterized by such an indicator as volume. It averages from 5 to 9 units of information and is determined by the number of units of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce several tens of seconds after a single presentation of this information to him.

Short-term memory is associated with the so-called actual human consciousness. From instant memory, only that information gets into it that is recognized, correlates with the actual interests and needs of a person, and attracts his increased attention.

Operational called memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After that, the information may disappear from the RAM. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of information storage and its properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.

long-term - it is a memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time. Information that has fallen into the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as desired without loss. Moreover, repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory. The latter presupposes the ability of a person at any necessary moment to recall what he once remembered. When using long-term memory, recall often requires thinking and willpower, so its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.

genetic memory can be defined as one in which information is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. The main biological mechanism for storing information in such a memory is, apparently, mutations and related changes in gene structures. Human genetic memory is the only one that we cannot influence through training and education.

Visual memory associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. It is extremely important for people of all professions, especially for engineers and artists. A good visual memory is often possessed by people with eidetic perception, who are able to “see” the perceived picture in their imagination for a sufficiently long time after it has ceased to affect the senses. In this regard, this type of memory implies a developed human ability to imagine. It is based, in particular, on the process of memorizing and reproducing material: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, remembers and reproduces more easily.

auditory memory - this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. It is necessary for philologists, people studying foreign languages, acousticians, musicians. A special kind of speech memory is verbal-logical, which is closely related to the word, thought and logic. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that a person who possesses it can quickly and accurately remember the meaning of events, the logic of reasoning or any evidence, the meaning of the text being read, etc. He can convey this meaning in his own words, and quite accurately. This type of memory is possessed by scientists, experienced lecturers, university professors and school teachers.

motor memory is the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements. It is involved in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports, skills and abilities. The improvement of human hand movements is directly related to this type of memory.

emotional memory - it is a memory of experiences. It is involved in the work of all types of memory, but it is especially manifested in human relationships. The strength of material memorization is directly based on emotional memory: what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a longer period.

Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory. Their role is mainly reduced to the satisfaction of biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the organism.

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorization and reproduction of material, memory is divided into involuntary And arbitrary . In the first case, they mean such memorization and reproduction, which occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of a person, without setting a special mnemonic task for himself (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction). In the second case, such a task is necessarily present, and the process of memorization or reproduction itself requires volitional efforts.

Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary, in many cases it surpasses it. It has been established, for example, that the material that is the object of attention and consciousness, acts as a goal, and not a means of carrying out an activity, is better remembered involuntarily. Involuntarily, material is also remembered better, which is associated with interesting and complex mental work and which is of great importance for a person. It is shown that in the case when significant work is carried out with the memorized material to comprehend, transform, classify, establish certain internal (structure) and external (association) links in it, it can be remembered involuntarily better than voluntarily. This is especially true for children of preschool and primary school age.

Let us now consider some features and the relationship between the two main types of memory that a person uses in everyday life: short-term and long-term.

Volume short term memory individual. It characterizes the natural memory of a person and reveals a tendency to be preserved throughout life. First of all, he determines mechanical memory, its capabilities. With the features of short-term memory, due to the limitations of its volume, such a property is associated as substitution . It manifests itself in the fact that when the individually limited amount of short-term memory of a person overflows, newly incoming information partially displaces the information stored there, and the latter irretrievably disappears, is forgotten, and does not fall into long-term storage. This, in particular, occurs when a person has to deal with such information that he is not able to fully remember and which is presented to him continuously and sequentially.

Why, for example, do we so often experience serious difficulties in remembering and retaining in memory the names, surnames and patronymics of people new to us, with whom we have just been introduced? Apparently, for the reason that the amount of information available in these words is at the limit of short-term memory, and if new information is added to it (and this is exactly what happens when the person presented to us begins to speak), then the old, associated with his name is repressed. Involuntarily switching attention to what a person says, we thereby stop repeating his first name, last name and patronymic, and as a result, we soon forget about them.

Short-term memory plays an important role in human life. Thanks to it, the largest amount of information is processed, unnecessary is immediately eliminated and potentially useful remains. As a result, there is no information overload of long-term memory with unnecessary information, and a person's time is saved. Short-term memory is of great importance for the organization of thinking; the material of the latter, as a rule, is facts that are either in short-term memory or in short-term memory close to it in terms of its characteristics.

This type of memory actively works in the process of human-to-human communication. It has been established that in the case when people who met for the first time are asked to talk about their impressions of each other, to describe those individual characteristics that they noticed in each other during the first meeting, on average they usually name such a number of features that corresponds to the amount of short-term memory , i.e. 7+2.

Without a good short-term memory, the normal functioning of long-term memory is impossible. Only what was once in short-term memory can penetrate into the latter and be deposited for a long time. In other words, short-term memory acts as an obligatory intermediate storage and filter that passes the necessary, already selected information into long-term memory.

The transition of information from short-term to long-term memory is associated with a number of features. The last 5 or 6 units of information received through the sense organs get into short-term memory, and they penetrate first of all into long-term memory. By making a conscious effort, repeating the material, you can keep it in short-term memory and for a longer period than a few tens of seconds. Thus, it is possible to ensure the transfer from short-term to long-term memory of such an amount of information that exceeds the individual amount of short-term memory. This mechanism underlies memorization through repetition.

Usually, without repetition, only what is in the sphere of human attention turns out to be in long-term memory. This feature of short-term memory is illustrated by the following experiment. In it, subjects are asked to remember only 3 letters and, after about 18 seconds, reproduce them. But in the interval between the initial perception of these letters and their recall, the subjects are not given the opportunity to repeat these letters to themselves. Immediately after the presentation of three different letters, they are invited to quickly start counting down in triplets, starting with some large number, for example, from 55. In this case, it turns out that many subjects are not able to remember these letters at all and accurately reproduce them through 18 p. On average, no more than 20% of the information they initially perceived is stored in the memory of people who have gone through such an experience.

Many of life's psychological problems that seem to be related to memory actually depend not on memory as such, but on the ability to ensure a person's long-term and sustained attention to the material being remembered or recalled. If it is possible to draw a person's attention to something, to focus his attention on it, then the corresponding material is better remembered and, therefore, is retained in memory longer. This fact can be illustrated by the following experiment. If you invite a person to close his eyes and unexpectedly answer, for example, the question of what color, shape and what other features an object has that he has seen more than once, past which he has repeatedly passed, but which did not arouse increased attention, then a person with can hardly answer the question, despite the fact that he has seen this subject many times. Many people are mistaken when they are asked to say what numeral, Roman or Arabic, is shown on the dial of their mechanical wrist watch number 6. It often turns out that it is not on the watch at all, and a person who looked at his watch tens and even hundreds of times paid attention to this fact and therefore did not remember it. The procedure for introducing information into short-term memory is the act of paying attention to it.

One possible mechanism for short-term memory is time coding, those. reflection of the memorized material in the form of certain, sequentially located symbols in the auditory or visual system of a person. For example, when we memorize something that can be denoted by a word, then we usually use this word by mentally pronouncing it to ourselves several times, and we do this either consciously, thoughtfully, or unconsciously, mechanically. If we need to visually remember a picture, then after carefully looking at it, we usually close our eyes or divert our attention from looking at it in order to focus it on memorization. At the same time, we always try to mentally reproduce what we saw, visualize it or express its meaning in words. Often, in order to really remember something, we try to evoke a certain reaction in ourselves by association with it. The generation of such a reaction should be considered as a special psychophysiological mechanism that contributes to the activation and integration of processes that serve as a means of memorization and reproduction.

The fact that when information is entered into long-term memory, it is usually recoded into an acoustic form, is proved by the following experiment. If the subjects are visually presented with a significant number of words that obviously exceed the amount of short-term memory in their number, and then analyze the mistakes that they make when reproducing it, it turns out that often the correct letters in words are replaced by those erroneous letters that are close to them in sound, not by writing. This, obviously, is typical only for people who own verbal symbols, i.e. sound speech. People who are born deaf do not need to convert visible words into audible ones.

In cases of painful disturbances, long-term and short-term memory can exist and function as relatively independent. For example, in this painful memory impairment called retrograde amnesia, memory is mostly affected for recent events, but memories of events that took place in the distant past are usually retained. In another type of disease, also associated with memory impairment - anterograde amnesia - both short-term and long-term memory remain intact. However, the ability to enter new information into long-term memory suffers.

However, both types of memory are interconnected and work as a single system. One of the concepts describing their joint, interconnected activity was developed by American scientists r. Atkinson and R. Shifrin. It is shown schematically in Fig. 42. In accordance with the theory of the named authors, long-term memory seems to be practically unlimited in volume, but it has limited possibilities for arbitrary recall of the information stored in it. In addition, in order for information from short-term storage to get into long-term storage, it is necessary that some work be done with it while it is in short-term memory. This is the work of recoding it, i.e. translation into a language understandable and accessible to the human brain. This process is somewhat similar to that which occurs when information is entered into an electronic computer. It is known that all modern computers are capable of storing information in binary codes, and in order for the memory of the machine to work, any information entered into it must be represented in this form.

In many life situations, the processes of short-term and long-term memory work in conjunction and in parallel. For example, when a person sets himself the task of remembering something that obviously exceeds the capabilities of his short-term memory, he often consciously or unconsciously turns to the use of semantic processing and grouping of material, which facilitates memorization. Such a grouping, in turn, involves the use of long-term memory, appeal to past experience, extracting from it the knowledge and concepts necessary for generalization, ways of grouping the memorized material, reducing it to the number of semantic units that do not exceed the amount of short-term memory.

Rice. 42. Memory scheme according to R. Atkinson and R. Shifrin. The interconnected work of short-term and long-term memory, including displacement, repetition and coding as private processes that make up the work of memory

The translation of information from short-term to long-term memory often causes difficulties, since in order to do this in the best way, it is necessary first to comprehend and structure the material in a certain way, to connect it with what a person knows well. It is precisely because of the insufficiency of this work, or because of the inability to carry it out quickly and efficiently, that people's memory seems to be weak, although in fact it may have great potentialities.

Let us now consider the features and some mechanisms of work long-term memory. This memory usually begins to function not immediately after the person has perceived and memorized the material, but after some time, necessary for the person to internally switch from one process to another, from memorization to reproduction. These two processes cannot occur in parallel, since their structure is different, and the mechanisms are incompatible, oppositely directed. Acoustic encoding is typical for the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory, where it is already stored, probably not in the form of sound, but in the form of semantic codes and structures associated with thinking. The reverse process involves the translation of thoughts into words.

If, for example, after a certain number of readings or listening, we try after some time to reproduce a long series of words, then we usually make mistakes just as often as when short-term memory does not work when memorizing. However, these errors are different. In most cases, instead of forgotten words, when remembering, we use others that are close to them not in sound or spelling, but in meaning. It often happens that a person, being unable to accurately recall a forgotten word, at the same time remembers its meaning well, can convey it in other words and confidently rejects other combinations of sounds that are not similar to the given word. Due to the fact that the meaning of what is remembered first comes to mind, we can eventually remember what we want, or at least replace it with something that is close enough to it in meaning. Were it not for this, we would have great difficulty remembering and often fail. The process of recognizing something once seen or heard is probably based on the same feature of long-term memory.

Literature

Blonsky P.P. Selected pedagogical and psychological works. - T. II. - M., 1979. (Memory and thinking: 118-341. Memory. Remembrance: 341-366.)

Wayne A.M., Kamenetskaya B.I. Human memory. - M., 1973. (Types of memory: 99-113. Age-related changes in memory: 114-121.)

Zinchenko P.I. Involuntary memory. - M., 1961. (The problem of involuntary and voluntary memorization in psychology: 9-137. Involuntary memorization and activity: 141-221. Involuntary memorization and motivation: 222-241. Comparison of involuntary and voluntary memorization: 245-425. Memory development: 425-514.)

Ippolitov F.V. The memory of a student. - M., 1978. (Memory Tips: 28-45.)

Klacki R. Human memory. Structures and processes. - M., 1978. (Short-term memory: 83-159. Long-term memory:

160-215. Memorization: 216-236. Recall (playback):

237-271. Memory and Vision: 272-291.)

Leontiev A.N. Selected psychological works:

In 2 volumes - M., 1983. - T. I. (Development of higher forms of memorization:

Lyaudis V.Ya. Memory in the process of development. - M., 1976. (Memory development: 8-37, 94-137. Arbitrary memorization: 38-93. The relationship between short-term and long-term memory: 138-219. Memory development in the learning process: 220-246.)

memory mechanisms. Guide to Physiology. - L., 1987. (Memory, its functions and connection with the work of the brain: 7-20. Emotions and memory regulation: 325-351. Neuropsychological regulation of memory: 351-356. Psychophysiological aspects of memory modulation: 374-388.)

Nikolov N., Neshev G. Mystery of the Millennium. What do we know about memory? - M., 1988. (Mechanisms of memory: 67-83.)

General psychology. - M., 1986. (Memory: 291-321.)

Cognitive activity in the system of memory processes. - M., 1989. (Activity approach to memory: 7-10. Relationship between cognitive activity and memory: 10-24. Relationship between voluntary and involuntary memorization: 25-43.)

Memory development. - Riga, 1991. (What is memory: 5-10. Paradoxes of memory: 11-117. Memory through the eyes of a physiologist: 18-30. Memory through the eyes of a psychologist: 31-42. Is it possible to train memory: 43-47. What kind of memory do I have: 48-53. )

Development of creative activity of schoolchildren. - M., 1991. (Memory development: 126-149.)

Smirnov A.A. Selected psychological works: In 2 volumes - T. II. - M., 1987. (Problems of the psychology of memory: 5-294. About some correlations in the field of memory: 316-327.)

Nemov R. S. Psychology: Proc. for stud. higher ped. textbook institutions: In 3 books. - 4th ed. - M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2003. - Book. 1: General foundations of psychology. - 688 p. pp. 219-228.

Types of memory - Structural features of mnemonic activity associated with various memorization mechanisms, temporal indicators of retention in memory, characteristics of the material.

According to the nature of the memorized material, the following types of memory are distinguished:

visual,

auditory,

Tactile.

According to the parameters of the duration of information storage in memory, there are:

Sensory (storage period is not more than 1.5 s.),

Short-term (shelf life is not more than 30 s.),

Long-term (allows you to store the material permanently, albeit with some fading in time).

These are the most common types of memory in scientific use. There are other approaches to memory classification, depending on the needs of researchers. Psychologists, as the most general grounds for distinguishing various types of memory, consider the dependence of memory characteristics on the characteristics of activity for:

memorization,

storage,

Reproduction of information.

Memorization is obviously closely connected with the nature of mental activity that predominates in activity. So memory is:

motor,

emotional,

figurative,

Verbal-logical.

Activity, and hence memorization, depends, of course, on the goals of the activity. According to this indicator, memory is divided into:

Arbitrary,

Involuntary.

Storing information is not a very good term, because usually the word "storage" means something like the passive lying of an object on a shelf in a closet. Storing information in a computer is also a very passive process, and usually the safety of a particular file does not depend on how often it is used.

For a person, the storage of information is its periodic use. The more often a person scrolls through this or that information in his head, and the more he uses it in daily activities or thoughts, the more information is stored. It happens, of course, that this or that information pops up in the mind decades later, but the general pattern is this: the more often you use it, the less likely it is to lose information and the easier it is to remember.

When does memory enter the body? In the philistine view, memory begins approximately from the moment when certain conscious actions are performed on the material to be remembered. For example, the teacher gave the task to the student to learn a poem. The student came home, changed clothes, had lunch, sat down for lessons - activated his memory.

However, we should not forget about the general principle of the work of memory, inherent in us by nature. And this principle is one - the preservation of external signals in time. If a stone is thrown at a person, then the pain sensation will spread along the nerve fibers after the blow has been received, the pain signal will arrive in perception and consciousness even later; the stone has already fallen to the ground, and discomfort and pain are still felt (in part, the sensation of pain may persist in time due to a violation of the integrity of the skin); years will pass, and the person will remember both that they threw a stone at him, and the one who threw it, and the circumstances under which it happened. If memory did not exist at all, then immediately after the stone ceased to come into contact with the skin of the victim, the latter would have forgotten about it.

Therefore, the mechanisms of memory come into action immediately, as soon as the receptors have been subjected to one or another effect. Further, the processes of storing information come into force. As already mentioned, one of the common reasons for dividing memory into types is by storage time. Allocate sensory, short-term (and related operational), long-term. Each of these types of memory is not only its type, but also a stage in the processing (storing) of information. Sensory memory is busy saving in time the most accurate picture of the surrounding situation (image, sound, etc.). But our memory cannot store all the information one-to-one. If everything memorized would be recorded without distortion on the "internal hard disk", then every second about 25 megabytes of information would come from sight alone. Therefore, short-term memory comes into play, which simplifies the perceived information as much as possible. Simplification occurs, for example, by highlighting the figure from the background, schematization. Associations are active.

If a poem is recited in our presence (for example, "Russia cannot be understood with the mind" by Tyutchev), then we do not remember the words, because we already know them; an association with previously memorized information is developed in the brain; as a result, our memory stores a memory like this: "Morkovkin ... Tyutchev ... Mind ... pathetic ..." Each of these words is an association with the one already stored in the memory: "Morkovkin" is an association with the image of a colleague, "Tyutchev "- with the image of the poet, "Mind" - with his poem, "Paphos" - with characteristic intonations. When someone subsequently asks us to tell how the party went, we will remember this episode and use the key association words to restore the picture of what happened. We already, one to one, do not remember what happened, but we can reconstruct the events. Knowing, for example, Morkovkin's character, we can assume how he spoke, what gestures he made, etc.

The main task, therefore, of short-term memory is to simplify the memorized material as much as possible, to separate the essential from the non-essential, and to create the prerequisites for long-term storage of information. However, a huge number of life, educational, work situations require not only and even not so much the work of long-term memory as the work of short-term memory. A housewife preparing a new dish using an unfamiliar recipe, a student using a cheat sheet in an exam, an auto mechanic repairing a car - these situations make you strain your memory, but the long-term result does not matter. The housewife may no longer cook with this recipe (and if she does, she may use it again), the student is only interested in a good grade (and work in the specialty is not so soon), it is not at all the job of an auto mechanic to remember every car he made. Therefore, in order to highlight special cases when long-term storage of information is not of interest, the concept of random access memory was introduced. Working memory is just a characteristic subspecies of short-term memory. Also, working memory can be considered as some functional state of short-term memory.

For ordinary short-term memory, it is characteristic that information that is significant for the individual passes into long-term. As a rule, this is achieved by developing associative links with information already stored in memory. All this information stored in long-term memory, although very loose, nevertheless has integrity, which can be called a picture (model) of the world. New information enters this model of the world, provided that the information is interesting and useful (that is, it fills a certain gap in knowledge), consistent (that is, true in relation to the model of the world).

Suppose a religious person tells an atheist that the world was created 8,000 years ago from a cuckoo's egg. An atheist will remember this information, but in what form? He cannot remember, enter into his model of the world that he was created 8,000 years ago from a cuckoo's egg. But this is not necessary. The atheist simply remembers, puts into his long-term memory the record: "There are people, at least one person, who believe that the world was created 8000 years ago from a cuckoo's egg. It's funny, you can tell it like a joke."

The work of short-term memory in the normal mode is very flexible. A person constantly turns to his long-term memory, a model of the world, trying to supplement the latter with new knowledge. In other words, there is a constant search for truth.

When short-term memory operates in operational mode, then, on the one hand, the efficiency of momentary retention of operational information increases quite significantly, on the other hand, the criticality to information, its comprehension, and the transition to long-term memory sharply decrease. Even after five minutes, it may already be that a person does not remember some fairly significant information (a housewife cannot remember whether she put a bay leaf or not, a student cannot remember a definition that he just copied from a cheat sheet, an auto mechanic cannot remember how many bolts he screwed.

It can be assumed that the natural mechanism that triggers working memory is a stressed functional state. In cases where a person is forced to solve intellectual problems in a limited time, RAM is launched. That is why scientists of all times and peoples like to do science slowly, in a calm environment, for them quality is more important than quantity.

Another well-known classification of types of memory was proposed by P. P. Blonsky, is made according to the nature of mental activity:

motor,

emotional,

figurative,

Verbal-logical.

These types of memory are closely related to each other. Even such distant (seemingly) from each other types of memory, such as motor and verbal-logical, are interconnected. Our verbal-logical memory relies on the speech apparatus, and when we repeat the lines of our favorite poem, for example, our speech apparatus is activated, although its activity remains suppressed: the muscles with which we speak are barely noticeably tense. Therefore, every time we repeat something to ourselves, we say it, only silently.

Motor (or motor) memory - memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements. Motor memory is the basis for the formation of various practical, including labor, skills, as well as walking, writing, etc.

Nature has endowed our organisms with rich possibilities in terms of movement. Some movements have more innate correlates, some have less. There are a number of congenital unconditioned reflexes, for example grasping. But all more or less complex movements have to learn. Only by the end of the first year of life the child gets on his feet. Many years will pass before a child learns to play the piano or dance on the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre. Without movement memory, we would have to learn each time to carry out the appropriate actions, which is not real.

When reproducing movements, a person does not always repeat them one to one in the same form as before. Some variability of them, a deviation from the original movements, no doubt, there is. But the general character of the movements still remains. It should also be taken into account that a person, in principle, cannot repeat the same movement exactly. The reason for this is the internal skeleton and a complex system of building movements. Unlike birds, for example, we have a pyramidal nervous system. If the movements of birds are choppy, similar to the movements of robots, then the movements of a person are smooth, but subject to interference.

Experiments have shown that movements are most accurately reproduced under the conditions in which they were performed earlier. In completely new, unaccustomed conditions, we often reproduce movements with great imperfection. It is not difficult to repeat the movements if we are used to performing them using a certain tool or with the help of some specific people, and in the new conditions we were deprived of this opportunity.

Interestingly, movements are easier to remember in a complex of other movements. It is easier to remember one set of ten movements than ten independent movements performed in random order. If once the movement was part of such a complex, then it will be much more difficult to reproduce it.

Suppose a certain person for five years came to work, opened the office door, undressed, changed shoes, turned on the computer, made himself coffee, then entered the password and started working. During these five years, he was so used to typing a password that he could simply forget it in his verbal expression, especially if the password consists of a complex combination of letters and numbers. However, his fingers "remember" this password, and over the past four years he has never been mistaken. If this person is asked to voice the password, then he may not succeed immediately (you will need to imagine how he is typing the password). If he suddenly decides to work remotely, connecting to the server from his home, then the same thing can happen: the password cannot be dialed. And it fails because the action was pulled out of the complex.

Emotional memory is, as the name implies, memory for emotions and feelings. This type of memory lies in our ability to remember and reproduce all sorts of emotions and feelings. Emotions always signal how our needs and interests are satisfied, how our relations with the outside world are carried out. Emotions connect us to our instincts - innate patterns of behavior. This is an important circumstance, because the importance of emotional memory for a person's personal growth is difficult to overestimate. So man, like any other animal, is arranged that he is inclined to repeat those situations in which he was pleased, and to avoid those situations that cause unpleasant memories.

Emotional memory can be both constructive and destructive. If, for example, a child enjoys getting A's, he will strive to continue to study well in order to get A's more often. If, in front of a child, a person drowned in the river and this caused a shock, then the whole next life he may be afraid to approach the water, because the sight of water evokes very negative memories.

For emotional memories in all languages ​​there are special words. In Russian it is "feelings". We remember chocolate, we are visited by pleasant emotions - we say that we love chocolate. We remember some unpleasant person, we are visited by unpleasant emotions - we say that we hate this person. The very word "feeling" is connected with "feel" in the sense of "feel". This is due to the fact that we actually feel our emotions and feel them with our whole body.

Interestingly, the work of emotional memory can be not only the cause of feelings, but also a consequence of them. If we are in a quarrel with someone, then, remembering the situation involving this person, we can interpret this situation in a negative way (for example, it may seem to us that this person wanted to insult us and insulted us). If we reconciled, then the memories can be completely different. Like any other kind of memory, emotional memory is not an accurate and impartial reflection of the actual state of affairs, but an exemplary and subjective one.

Figurative memory is a memory for expanded representations:

Visual pictures of nature and scenes from life,

Complex sounds (including musical works).

Memory for smells, tastes, and tactile impressions is sometimes referred to as figurative memory. The essence of figurative memory lies in the fact that what was previously perceived is then reproduced in the form of expanded representations. When characterizing figurative memory, one should keep in mind all those features that are characteristic of representations, and above all them:

Pallor,

Fragmentation

Instability.

For figurative memory, these defects are most noticeable. Each person at least once in his life strained his memory to imagine in detail, for example, what St. Basil's Cathedral looks like or what outlines Japan has...

For figurative memory, innate inclinations are of great importance. People with a very well-developed visual analyzer can remember how many buttons were on a kindergarten teacher's dress, and people with a very well-developed audio analyzer can sing a song once heard from memory.

Experimental psychologists have studied quite a lot the features of the deviation of ideas from the original image of perception. Basically, these deviations can go in two ways:

By mixing the mixing of images,

Due to the differentiation of images.

In the first case, the image loses its specific features, and the common thing that the object has with other similar objects or phenomena comes to the fore. In the second case, the features characteristic of a given image are intensified in the memory, emphasizing the originality of the object or phenomenon.

The next type of memory, verbal-logical, is expressed in the memorization and reproduction of our thoughts. This type of memory evolved from figurative memory (sound). At some stage of evolution, it became profitable to perceive and pronounce sounds not only in the form of images, but also in the form of complex sequences of sounds, that is, in a coded, conditional form.

We remember and reproduce thoughts as if we were talking to ourselves: speech from the outside became the inside. Modern speech is not only sounds, but also letters, but nevertheless, those parts of the brain associated with the processing of sound stimuli take part in the processing and storage of verbal-logical information.

Verbal-logical memory appeared when a person learned to conditionally encode pronounced sounds (once "U-A-O" was just a kind of cry that does not differ from "A-U-O", now the first means, for example, fire, and the second is to hunt). Therefore, for the full-fledged work of verbal-logical memory, a layer called language is needed. Without a language (a coding system), all speech loses its meaning. When memorizing a sentence (for example, "Mom washed the frame"), we don't really remember each sound separately. We use associations with the language and, as it were, pull the strings. They pulled one thread - here is the word-concept "mother", the second - "soap", the third - "frame".

A language is something like a library of standard sounds permanently stored in memory. The sound here means not only the actual sounds, but also words, and even whole phrases (for example, "Hello! How are you?"). Each sound has a unique meaning, with its own associations. Also, which is very important, we are able to reproduce any sound from the language with our speech apparatus. Language is often viewed as a social tool, which of course it is. But its other most important function is to facilitate the work of verbal-logical memory.

As already mentioned, memory is divided into arbitrary and involuntary, which depends on the goals of the activity. If a purposeful activity is carried out to memorize the material, then we are talking about arbitrary activities (for example, a student is preparing for an exam). If memorization is not purposeful, they speak of involuntary memory (for example, we can remember that yesterday it was raining, and the day before yesterday it was snowing).

Involuntary memory is not necessarily weaker than voluntary memory. On the contrary, it often happens that involuntarily memorized material is reproduced better than material that was specially memorized. For example, an involuntarily heard phrase or perceived visual information is often remembered more reliably than if we tried to remember it specifically. The material that is in the center of attention is involuntarily remembered, and especially when certain mental work is associated with it. As noted above, the work of short-term memory is carried out constantly, interesting and useful things are deposited in long-term memory, chaotic, boring and useless are ignored and replaced in the mind by other material. When we try to remember something in an arbitrary sense (what we need, not what we want), we:

We focus on what we need

We use various kinds of mnemonic means (for example, we use associations in our minds, we simply repeat many times),

We cheer ourselves up.

This is the arbitrary nature of the work of memory. It is quite easy to memorize small amounts of boring information in this way. However, there is no particular guarantee that this information will remain in long-term memory. For successful memorization, interest is very important, and, unfortunately or joyfully, it is difficult to manage it. Self-hypnosis can act as a substitute for interest: "This is very important, this must be remembered."

Instant, or iconic memory- direct imprint of sensory information. Holds a fairly accurate and complete picture of the world, perceived by the senses, without processing the information received. Its duration is 0.1–0.5 s. This type of memory can be tracked in the following experiment.

short term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. In this case, the retained information is not a complete reflection of the events that occurred at the sensory level, but a direct interpretation of these events. Short-term memory is associated with the so-called actual human consciousness. From instant memory, only the information that is recognized, correlates with the actual interests and needs of a person, and attracts his increased attention, gets into it.

Operational called memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this problem. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of information storage and properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.

long-term is a memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time. Information that has entered the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced indefinitely, without loss. Repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory. The capacity of long-term memory is virtually limitless.

Short and long term memory interconnected and work as a single system. One of the concepts describing their joint, interconnected activity was developed by American scientists R. Atkinson and R. Shifrin.

Short-term memory is characterized by its limited volume(average 7 + 2). When a person's short-term memory is full, newly incoming information partially replaces the information stored there, and the latter disappears forever. Short-term memory acts as a mandatory intermediate storage and filter, which processes the largest amount of information, immediately sifting out unnecessary, and leaving potentially useful.

The memorization process can proceed more efficiently if you focus on the material being learned.

A feature of long-term memory is that it, according to R. Atkinson and R. Shifrin, is practically unlimited in terms of the volume and duration of information storage in it.

Both types of memory work in conjunction and in parallel. There is a constant work in memory to refer to past experience, to supplement it with new information, as well as to correct the learned information. In other words, a person does not need to memorize what he already knows well. Associative memory is based on this.

Memory

1.Memory- the process of capturing, storing and reproducing information.

Types of memory.

Since memory is included in all the diversity of human life and activity, the forms of its manifestation are extremely diverse. The division of memory into types should be determined, first of all, by the characteristics of the activity itself, in which the processes of memorization and reproduction are carried out.

The most general basis for distinguishing different types of memory is the dependence of its characteristics on the characteristics of the activity in which the processes of memorization and reproduction are carried out. At the same time, individual types of memory are distinguished in accordance with three main criteria:

1) according to the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical;

2) by the nature of the goals of the activity - into involuntary and arbitrary;

3) by the duration of consolidation and preservation of the material (in connection with its role and place in the activity) - for short-term, long-term and operational.

motor memory- this is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. emotional memory is a memory of feelings.

figurative memory- this is a memory for ideas, for pictures of nature in life, as well as for sounds, smells, tastes. It can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory.

involuntary memory means memorization and reproduction automatically, without any effort. In this case, memorization occurs without any special effort.

Arbitrary memory implies cases where a specific task is present, and volitional efforts are used for memorization. In this type of memory, an important role plays target.

long term memory(what is held for more than 30 minutes) - a memory capable of storing information for an unlimited period. - This memory does not begin to function immediately after the material has been memorized, but after some time.

short term memory- storage of information for a short period of time: on average, about 20 s. This kind of memory can occur after a single or very brief perception. This memory also works without a conscious effort to remember, but with an attitude towards future reproduction.

RAM- memory is designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period. The storage period of information ranges from a few seconds to several days. After solving the task, the information may disappear from the RAM.

3.Memory processes: memorization (imprinting in the mind of a person the information received, which is a necessary condition for enriching the experience of a person with new knowledge and forms of behavior), preservation (keeping the acquired knowledge in memory for a relatively long period of time), reproduction (this is the activation of the fixed previously the contents of the psyche), recognition (phenomena of the psyche accompanying memory processes, allowing them to function more efficiently). Memory in general and a particular person in particular has its own peculiarities, indicating its effectiveness: 1. volume - the most important characteristic of P as a whole and its individual processes, reflecting the quantitative indicators and possibilities of information captured, stored and reproduced by people; 2. speed - the ability of a person in the process of capturing, storing and reproducing information to achieve a certain speed of its processing and use. 3. accuracy - characteristic P, the cat shows the ability of a person in the process of capturing, preserving and reproducing information to qualitatively and productively reflect its main content. 4. duration - indicates the ability of a person to keep a certain time in his mind the necessary information (KP, DP, OP) 5. readiness - indicates a predisposition of a person and his consciousness to always actively use all the imprinted information .

4. Patterns of memory: 1. law of associations; 2. edge factor - the first and last element are remembered better; 3. Zeigarnik effect - unfinished actions are remembered better; 4. forgetting curve - the dependence of memory efficiency on time (the learned material is largely forgotten in the first minutes and hours, if you repeat the material, then memorization will improve and the curve will go up). 5. meaningful memorization is 10 times more effective than nonsensical memorization. 6. interest in the material and attention to it several times increases the efficiency of memorization. 7 memorization distributed over time is several times more effective than concentrated. 8. Remenience - the resurfacing of previously forgotten material in memory, due to factors such as rest and sleep (increase in memorization efficiency after some time).

Classification of types of memory

There are different types of memory:

By sensory modality - visual (visual) memory, motor (kinesthetic) memory, sound (auditory) memory, taste memory, pain memory.

On the organization of memorization - episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory;

By temporal characteristics - long-term (declarative) memory, short-term memory, ultra-short-term memory;

According to physiological principles - determined by the structure of connections of nerve cells (it is also long-term) and determined by the current flow of electrical activity of the nerve pathways (it is also short-term)

By the presence of a goal - arbitrary and involuntary;

· according to the availability of funds - mediated and non-mediated;

By level of development - motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical

At the junction between episodic and semantic memory, autobiographical memory is distinguished, which includes features of both.

You can build another classification according to the content of memory:

procedural (memory for actions) and declarative (memory for names). Within the framework of the latter, episodic (memory for events and phenomena of a person's individual life) and semantic (knowledge of things that do not depend on a person's individual life) are distinguished.

The laws of memory.

The German scientist G. Ebbinghaus was one of the first scientists who deduced the following patterns of memorization, established in studies where meaningless syllables and other poorly organized material was used for memorization. Here are the main laws that he deduced:

1. Relatively simple events in life that make a particularly strong impression on a person can be remembered immediately firmly and for a long time, and after many years from the moment of the first and only meeting with them, they can appear in consciousness with distinctness and clarity.

2. A person can experience more complex and less interesting events dozens of times, but they are not imprinted in memory for a long time.

3. With close attention to an event, it is enough to experience it once in order to accurately and in the right order reproduce its main points from memory.

4. A person can objectively correctly reproduce events, but be aware of this and, conversely, make mistakes, but be sure that he reproduces them correctly. Between the accuracy of reproduction of events and confidence in this accuracy, there is not always an unambiguous relationship.

5. Preliminary repetition of the material to be memorized (repetition without memorization) saves time on its assimilation if the number of such preliminary repetitions does not exceed their number required for complete memorization of the material by heart.

6. When memorizing a long row, its beginning and end are best reproduced from memory (“edge effect”).

7. For the associative connection of impressions and their subsequent reproduction, it is especially important whether they are separate or form a logically connected whole.

8. Repetition of learned material in a row is less productive for its memorization than the distribution of such repetitions over a certain period of time, for example, within several hours or days.

9. New repetition contributes to a better memorization of what was learned before.

10. With increasing attention to the material to be memorized, the number of repetitions necessary for learning it by heart can be reduced, and the lack of sufficient attention cannot be compensated by an increase in the number of repetitions.

11. What a person is especially interested in is remembered without any difficulty. This pattern is especially pronounced in mature years.

12. Rare, strange, unusual experiences are remembered better than the usual, often encountered.

13. Any new impression received by a person does not remain isolated in his memory. Being remembered in one form, it may change somewhat over time, entering into an associative relationship with other impressions, influencing them and, in turn, changing under their influence.

MEMORY is a reflection of the past experience of a person, manifested in remembering, preserving and subsequent recall of what he perceived, did, felt or thought about him.
Kinds
1 According to the leading analyzer (sight, olfactory, touch, taste - memory for images, taste, hearing, etc.)
2 By subject or material De:
a) motor (for movement) underlies all skills (walking, writing, cutting bread, i.e. any movements brought to automatism).
b) emotional. Memory for feelings and emotions. It matters in the process of personality formation. Regulation is repeated from experienced feelings (emotions). Happens:
- figurative (for some images) - verbal (speech means)
3 According to the duration of the processes:
a) sensory memory, when remembered at the level of receptors (0.1-0.5 sec) - Tel turned off, the picture remains
b) short term. Information is stored for about 20 seconds. Brief storage after a short time of perception.
c) long term. Long-term preservation of the material after its repeated repetition (multiplication table, poetry)
d) operational. Remembering any coincidences to perform any operations (tasks) - how to brew tea? We remember well, that is, when we need to remember.
4 By goal De
a) involuntary (no goal, no volitional effort
b) arbitrary (there is a goal, volitional effort and uses mnemonic actions - def methods, technique.
Processes
1 Memorization. Reception, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired. Memorization is selective:
a) it is remembered what the person acts with (they taught chemistry at school, then we explain to the children)
b) remember what is interesting
c) memorization depends on the volitional sphere. Use the mnemonic method of action (reception when memorizing - create images of what you are learning about)
2 Memory is retention and forgetting. Preservation - retention of past experience:
a) save the material by the degree of participation in De

b) the amount of material e.b. is proportional to the amount of memory
FORGETTING - loss, disappearance from the memory of past experience. Sometimes forgetting is advisable so that there is no overstrain of the nervous system. When forgetting a noun, REMINISCENSION is a delayed reproduction of past experience that has been forgotten.
3 Playback. Memory in which actualization occurs, fixing the early from long-term memory into operational. Allocate:
A) own B - when the material is produced without re-perception
B) recognition - reproduction of an object in conditions of repeated perception (you need to present and remember the object).
C) recall - the most active reproduction associated with tension and requiring voluntary efforts.
The initial manifestation of memory can be considered conditioned reflexes observed already in the first months of a child's life, for example, the cessation of crying when the mother enters the room. A more distinct manifestation of memory is revealed when the child begins to recognize objects. This is first observed at the end of the first six months of life, and at first recognition is limited to a narrow circle of objects: the child recognizes the mother, other people who constantly surround him, things with which he often deals. Moreover, all this is recognizable if there is no long break in the perception of the object. If the time interval between recognition and perception of an object (the so-called "latent period") was large enough, then the child may not recognize the object presented to him. Usually this hidden period should not exceed a few days, otherwise the child will not be able to recognize anything or anyone.
Gradually, the circle of objects that the child learns increases. The latent period is also lengthened. By the end of the second year of life, the child may recognize what he saw a few weeks before. By the end of the third year - what was perceived a few months ago, and by the end of the fourth - what was about a year ago.
In ml doshk vzr, involuntary memorization and reproduction predominate. Arbitrary memorization is activated by the child in the event that it is required by the child or if an appropriate task arises. In doshk vzr, eidetic memory predominates - the child, remembering how he sees the object again and can describe it in detail.
For children of the period, the characteristic feature is the intensive development of memorization and reproduction mechanisms. First of all, recognition is manifested in the child, while reproduction is detected much later. The first signs of reproduction are observed only in the second year of life. It is the short duration of the latent period that explains the fact that our first memories of childhood belong to the period of four to five years of age. (bright memories that remain in the memory of everyone after the period of st doshk age, and the almost complete absence of memories of early childhood).
Initially, memory is involuntary. In preschool and preschool age, children usually do not set themselves the task of remembering anything. Memorization and reproduction do not depend on the will of the Rebbe, but are connected with the De performed by him. At the age of 4-5 years, arbitrary forms of memorization and reproduction begin to form. The development of arbitrary memory in preschool age occurs in games and in the process of education. Moreover, the manifestation of memorization is associated with the interests of the child. Children remember better what interests them. It should also be emphasized that at preschool age, children begin to memorize meaningfully, that is, they understand what they remember. At the same time, children mainly rely on visually perceived connections between objects and phenomena, and not on abstract logical relationships between concepts.
Assimilation of arbitrary forms of memorization occurs in stages. At first, the doshk sets the task of remembering and recalling, without using special methods of memorization, because they do not yet own them.
The next stage is the development of memorization techniques for recall, which are usually prompted by an adult. For example, the child gives the task, and then is asked to repeat, and the vzr helps with leading questions.
Despite the imperfection of memorization mechanisms, memory in preschool age becomes a function of the Vedas and occupies the center of consciousness.
The rapid development of memory characteristics occurs during school years. It has to do with the learning process. The process of assimilation of new knowledge predetermines the development, first of all, of arbitrary memory. Unlike a preschooler, a schoolchild is forced to memorize and reproduce not what is interesting to him, but what the school curriculum gives. Under the influence of the requirements of the school, memorization and reproduction become more arbitrary and become much more active, so schooling from a certain point of view can be considered as a complex system for training the memory of a young person.