Urine analysis in dogs decoding norm table. General urinalysis in dogs. Crystals and Neoplasms

Urinalysis is important for a person who can tell the doctor where and how it hurts, and even more so for a dog who, unfortunately, cannot tell us about his pains.

However, if it is normal to take a urine test to a medical laboratory, then going with dog excrement to a veterinary laboratory is still quite rare.

Factors Affecting the Composition of Dog Urine

Urine that is excreted (diuresis) is a waste product of the body. Its composition is influenced by:

pathological factors (infection, invasion,);
physiological (pregnancy, estrus, weight, type of feeding);
climatic (temperature, humidity).

The composition of urine can be affected by stress.

Conducting experiments and studies with clinically healthy animals, biologists have calculated the parameters that are present in the urine and characterize the physiological balance of the systems and organs.

The composition and parameters of the norm

The basis of urine is water, it is normally 97-98%. The following components are included in it:

organic;
inorganic.

According to the physical parameters, the dog's urine should be yellow or light yellow (depending on the food consumed), transparent, without a strong odor.

Normal urine color should be yellow.

Table of organic components (norm for a dog)

Density

The specific gravity of urine is an indicator that characterizes how much the kidneys can concentrate urine by reabsorbing water.

The density of urine allows you to assess the activity of the kidneys.

pH Index of acid balance

Urine, normally, can be both acidic and alkaline. By this indicator, we can judge the dog's diet. The more protein food is contained in the four-legged bowl, the more acidic the urine.

Protein foods increase the acidity of urine.

An acidified indicator will be during fasting, prolonged physical exertion, but this will not indicate pathology.

Protein

A substance consisting of amino acids should not normally leave the body.

The appearance of protein in the urine can sometimes be not associated with pathology. This phenomenon is observed with excessive physical exertion, as well as overfeeding the dog with food of animal origin, or when the diet is not balanced in protein.

The appearance of protein occurs with great physical exertion.

Glucose

An indicator that makes it possible to understand whether the carbohydrate metabolism in the dog is correct.

Normally, all carbohydrates should be absorbed, but if there is an excess of them in the diet, then some part will be excreted in the urine.

Excess glucose will be excreted in the urine.

Often this tes is deceptive. Since the diagnostic strips react to the level of ascorbic acid, and it can be synthesized in a dog in fairly high concentrations.

Bilirubin

In the bile component. The appearance of traces of bilirubin may indicate.

Identified bilirubin indicates liver pathologies.

Ketone bodies

If ketone bodies are found along with a high sugar content, then this indicates.

Ketone bodies alone can normally be with prolonged fasting, or with an excess of fat in the dog's diet.

Ketone bodies are detected during fasting.

Microscopic studies

After standing, urine excretes sediment. Having examined it under a microscope, the components are divided into organic origin, and mineral.

Under a microscope, the urine sediment is divided into parts.

organic sediment

RBCs can be found as organic. Such a "find" may indicate a pathology of the urinary tract,.

Leukocytes can be found in the norm, but not more than 1-2. With a larger amount, this indicates a pathology of the kidneys.

epithelial cells are always present in the urine sediment, since the epithelial cover is constantly changing, but this indicator is more pronounced in females.

If revealed increased number of cylinders , then this may indicate a pathology of the kidneys and urinary system.

The presence of red blood cells indicates a disease of the urinary tract.

Inorganic precipitation

If the pH of the urine is acidic, then uric acid, calcium phosphate, and calcium sulfate may predominate. If the reaction is closer to alkaline, then amorphous phosphates, magnesium phosphate, calcium carbonate, tripel phosphate may be present.

With the appearance of uric acid (normally it should not be), we can talk about strong physical exertion on the dog, or overfeeding with meat feed. In pathological processes, such as uric acid diathesis, febrile conditions, tumor processes, uric acid will be present in significant quantities.

When overfeeding meat, uric acid appears.

If the dog's urine is closer in color to brick, then amorphous urates will precipitate. Under the physiological norm, such processes are impossible. The presence may indicate a fever,.

Oxalates

Oxalates (producers of oxalic acid) can be in units. If there are many of them in the field of view, then diabetes mellitus, pyelonephritis, and calcium pathology are possible.

The detection of calcium carbonate will not be a pathology if the dog is fed exclusively with plant foods, otherwise, it will indicate.

If your dog is a Dalmatian or a puppy, then ammonium urate will be present in the urine normally. In other cases, it may indicate an inflammation of the bladder.

In Dalmatians, the presence of ammonium urate is normal.

Crystals and Neoplasms

If found tyrosine or leucine crystals , then the pathology can be caused by leukemia or phosphorus poisoning.

On neoplasms in the kidneys , or dystrophic processes in them will indicate the presence of cholesterol crystals in the sediment.

Tyrosine crystals can be caused by leukemia.

Fatty acid

Sometimes fatty acids can be detected in the urine. Their presence indicates dystrophic changes in the renal tissue, namely, the breakdown of the epithelium of the renal tubules.

The presence of fatty acids indicates a change in the kidney tissue.

Bacteriological analysis of urine

The detection of a bacterium in the field of view of a microscope cannot speak of a pathology or a norm, but the fact itself is a prerequisite for conducting a bacterial analysis.

When sowing urine on nutrient media and identifying the level ranging from 1000 to 10000 microbial bodies in one milliliter of urine, for females this will be the norm, and for males, it may indicate the onset of inflammatory processes in the urinary organs.

Such a urine test is carried out, as a rule, not so much to identify the microflora, but to isolate a pure culture and subtitrate for the sensitivity of antibiotics, which are then used to treat the animal.

Bacteriological analysis of urine is carried out to determine sensitivity to antibiotics.

Urinalysis for fungi

When sowing on nutrient media, microscopic fungi germinate at certain temperatures. Normally, they are absent, but long-term antibiotic treatment, as well as diabetes mellitus, can activate the growth of pathogenic microflora.

Urinalysis can be carried out qualitatively, using test systems (strips that are not always adapted to veterinary diagnostics) and quantitatively, in the laboratory.

If the initial analysis by the test system showed deviations in one direction or another, this is not a reason to panic. Quantitative measurements of urine parameters are needed. Research should be carried out in a veterinary laboratory, and only one that has the right to conduct certain studies.

Urine analysis should be carried out in the laboratory.

conclusions

It must be clearly understood that having no research results is better than having the wrong ones. The study of urine is designed not only to detect pathology, but also to differentiate the disease. Any inaccuracy is fraught with the appointment of improper treatment, which in turn can lead to irreversible consequences.

Urinalysis will help to identify pathologies in time.

Video about dog urine analysis

General clinical examination of urine includes the determination of physical properties, chemical composition and microscopic examination of the sediment.

physical properties.

QUANTITY.

Fine The daily amount of urine averages 20-50 ml per kg of body weight for dogs and 20-30 mg per kg of body weight for cats.

Increased daily diuresis - polyuria.
Causes:
1. Convergence of edema;
2. Diabetes mellitus (Diabetes maleus) (together with a positive level of glucose in the urine and a high specific gravity of the urine);
3. Glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, pyelonephritis (together with a negative glucose level, high specific gravity of urine and severe proteinuria);
4. Cushing's syndrome, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, tumors, uterine disease (pyometra), hyperthyroidism, liver disease (along with negative glucose levels, high urine specific gravity and negative or mild proteinuria)
5. Chronic renal failure or diuresis after acute renal failure (together with low urine specific gravity and elevated blood urea levels);
6. Diabetes insipidus (together with a low specific gravity of urine, which does not change during a test with fluid deprivation and a normal level of urea in the blood);
7. Psychogenic craving for drinking (along with low specific gravity of urine, which increases during a test with deprivation of fluid and a normal level of urea in the blood)
Often causes polydipsia.

Decreased daily diuresis - oliguria.
Causes:
1. Profuse diarrhea;
2. Vomiting;
3. The growth of edema (regardless of their origin);
4. Too little fluid intake;

Lack of urine or too little urine (lack of urination or urination) - anuria.
Causes:
a) Prerenal anuria (due to extrarenal causes):
1. Severe blood loss (hypovolemia - hypovolemic shock);
2. Acute heart failure (cardiogenic shock);
3. Acute vascular insufficiency (vascular shock);
4. Indomitable vomiting;
5. Severe diarrhea.
b) Renal (secretory) anuria (associated with pathological processes in the kidneys):
1. Acute nephritis;
2. Necronephrosis;
3. Transfusion of incompatible blood;
4. Severe chronic kidney disease.
c) Obstructive (excretory) anuria (impossibility of urination):
1. Blockage of the ureters with stones;
2. Compression of the ureters by tumors that develop near the ureters (neoplasms of the uterus, ovaries, bladder, metastases from other organs.

COLOR

Normal urine color is straw yellow.
Color change may be due to the release of coloring compounds formed during organic changes or under the influence of food, drugs or contrast agents.

Red or red-brown color (color of meat slops)
Causes:
1. Macrohematuria;
2. Hemoglobinuria;
3. The presence of myoglobin in the urine;
4. The presence of porphyrin in the urine;
5. The presence in the urine of certain drugs or their metabolites.

Dark yellow color (may be with a greenish or greenish-brown tint, the color of dark beer)
Causes:
1. Isolation of bilirubin in the urine (with parenchymal or obstructive jaundice).

greenish yellow color
Causes:
1. A large amount of pus in the urine.

Dirty brown or gray color
Causes:
1. Pyuria with alkaline urine.

Very dark, almost black
Causes:
1. Hemoglobinuria in acute hemolytic anemia.

whitish color
Causes:
1. Phosphaturia (the presence in the urine of a large amount of phosphates).
It should be borne in mind that with prolonged standing urine, its color may change. As a rule, it becomes more saturated. In the case of the formation of urobilin from colorless urobilinogen under the influence of light, the urine becomes dark yellow (to orange). In the case of the formation of methemoglobin, the urine acquires a dark brown color. In addition, a change in odor may be associated with the use of certain drugs, feed or feed additives.

TRANSPARENCY

Normal urine is clear.

Cloudy urine can be caused by:
1. The presence of erythrocytes in the urine;
2. The presence of leukocytes in the urine;
3. The presence of epithelial cells in the urine;
4. The presence of bacteria in the urine (bacteruria);
5. The presence of fatty drops in the urine;
6. The presence of mucus in the urine;
7. Precipitation of salts.

In addition, the transparency of urine depends on:
1. Salt concentrations;
2. pH;
3. Storage temperatures (low temperature contributes to the precipitation of salts);
4. Duration of storage (with prolonged storage, salts fall out).

SMELL

Normally, the urine of dogs and cats has a mild specific odor.

A change in odor can be caused by:
1. Acetonuria (the appearance of the smell of acetone in diabetes mellitus);
2. Bacterial infections (ammonia, bad smell);
3. Taking antibiotics or nutritional supplements (a special specific smell).

DENSITY

Normal density of urine in dogs 1.015-1.034 (minimum - 1.001, maximum 1.065), in cats - 1.020-1.040.
Density is a measure of the ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine.

What matters is
1. The state of hydration of the animal;
2. Drinking and eating habits;
3. Ambient temperature;
4. Injected drugs;
5. Functional state or number of renal tubules.

Causes of increased urine density:
1. Glucose in the urine;
2. Protein in the urine (in large quantities);
3. Drugs (or their metabolites) in the urine;
4. Mannitol or dextran in the urine (as a result of intravenous infusion).

Causes of a decrease in the density of urine:
1. Diabetes mellitus;
3. Acute kidney damage.

You can talk about adequate kidney response when, after a short abstinence from drinking water, the specific gravity of urine rises to the average figures of the norm. An inadequate reaction of the kidneys is considered if the specific gravity does not rise above the minimum values \u200b\u200bwhen refraining from taking water - isosthenuria (a greatly reduced ability to adapt).
Causes:
1. Chronic renal failure.

Chemical research.

pH

Normal urine pH dogs and cats can be either slightly acidic or slightly alkaline, depending on the protein content of the diet. On average, the pH of urine ranges from 5-7.5 and is often slightly acidic.

Increasing the pH of urine (pH> 7.5) - alkalization of urine.
Causes:
1. The use of plant foods;
2. Profuse sour vomiting;
3. Hyperkalemia;
4. Resorption of edema;
5. Primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism (accompanied by hypercalcemia);
6. Metabolic or respiratory alkalosis;
7. Bacterial cystitis;
8. Introduction of sodium bicarbonate.

Decreased pH of urine (pH about 5 and below) - acidification of urine.
Causes:
1. Metabolic or respiratory acidosis;
2. Hypokalemia;
3. Dehydration;
4. Fever;
5. Fasting;
6. Prolonged muscle load;
7. Diabetes mellitus;
8. Chronic renal failure;
9. Introduction of acidic salts (for example, ammonium chloride).

PROTEIN

Normal urine protein absent or its concentration is less than 100 mg/l.
Proteinuria- the appearance of protein in the urine.

Physiological proteinuria- cases of temporary appearance of protein in the urine, not associated with diseases.
Causes:
1. Reception of a large amount of feed with a high protein content;
2. Strong physical activity;
3. Epileptic seizures.

Pathological proteinuria happens renal and extrarenal.

Extrarenal proteinuria may be extrarenal or postrenal.

extrarenal extrarenal protenuria more often there is a temporary mild degree (300 mg / l).
Causes:
1. Heart failure;
2. Diabetes mellitus;
3. Elevated temperature;
4. Anemia;
5. Hypothermia;
6. Allergy;
7. The use of penicillin, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides;
8. Burns;
9. Dehydration;
10. Hemoglobinuria;
11. Myoglobinuria.
Severity of proteinuria is not a reliable indicator of the severity of the underlying disease and its prognosis.

Extrarenal postrenal proteinuria(false proteinuria, accidental proteinuria) rarely exceeds 1 g / l (except in cases of severe pyuria) and is accompanied by the formation of a large sediment.
Causes:
1. Cystitis;
2. Pyelitis;
3. Prostatitis;
4. Urethritis;
5. Vulvovaginitis.
6. Bleeding in the urinary tract.

Renal proteinuria occurs when protein enters the urine in the kidney parenchyma. In most cases, it is associated with increased permeability of the renal filter. At the same time, a high protein content in the urine is found (more than 1 g / l). Microscopic examination of urine sediment reveals casts.
Causes:
1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
2. Acute and chronic pyelonephritis;
3. Severe chronic heart failure;
4. Amyloidosis of the kidneys;
5. Neoplasms of the kidneys;
6. Hydronephrosis of the kidneys;
7. Lipoid nephrosis;
8. Nephrotic syndrome;
9. Immune diseases with damage to the renal glomeruli by immune complexes;
10. Severe anemia.

Renal microalbuminuria- the presence of protein in the urine at concentrations below the sensitivity of the reagent strips (from 1 to 30 mg / 100 ml). It is an early indicator of various chronic kidney diseases.

Paraproteinuria- the appearance in the urine of a globulin protein that does not have the properties of antibodies (Bence-Jones protein), consisting of light chains of immunoglobulins that easily pass through glomerular filters. Such a protein is released during plasmacytoma. Paraproteinuria develops without primary damage to the renal glomeruli.

tubular proteinuria- the appearance in the urine of small proteins (α1-microglobulin, β2-microglobulin, lysozyme, retinol-binding protein). They are normally present in the glomerular filtrate but are reabsorbed in the renal tubules. When the epithelium of the renal tubules is damaged, these proteins appear in the urine (determined only by electrophoresis). Tubular proteinuria is an early indicator of renal tubular damage in the absence of concomitant changes in circulating urea and creatinine levels.
Causes:
1. Medicines (aminoglycosides, cyclosporine);
2. Heavy metals (lead);
3. Analgesics (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory substances);
4. Ischemia;
5. Metabolic diseases (Fanconi-like syndrome).

False positive protein counts, obtained using a test strip, are characteristic of alkaline urine (pH 8).

False negatives for protein, obtained using the test strips are due to the fact that the test strips show, first of all, the level of albumins (paraproteinuria and tubular proteinuria are not detected) and their content in the urine is above 30 mg / 100 ml (microalbuminuria is not detected).
Assessment of proteinuria should be carried out taking into account clinical symptoms (fluid accumulation, edema) and other laboratory parameters (blood protein level, albumin and globulin ratio, urea, creatinine, serum lipids, cholesterol levels).

GLUCOSE

Normally, there is no glucose in the urine.

Glucosuria- the presence of glucose in the urine.

1. Glucosuria with high specific gravity of urine(1.030) and elevated blood glucose (3.3 - 5 mmol / l) - a criterion for diabetes mellitus (Diadetes mellitus).
It should be borne in mind that in animals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent), the renal glucose threshold (the concentration of glucose in the blood above which glucose begins to enter the urine) can change significantly. Sometimes, with persistent normoglycemia, glucosuria persists (the renal glucose threshold is lowered). And with the development of glomerulosclerosis, the renal glucose threshold increases, and there may be no glucosuria even with severe hyperglycemia.

2.Renal glucosuria- is recorded at an average specific gravity of urine and a normal level of glucose in the blood. A marker of tubular dysfunction is deterioration in reabsorption.
Causes:
1. Primary renal glucosuria in some dog breeds (Scottish Terriers, Norwegian Elkhounds, mixed breed dogs);
2. A component of the general dysfunction of the renal tubules - Fanconi-like syndrome (maybe hereditary and acquired; glucose, amino acids, small globulins, phosphate and bicarbonate are excreted in the urine; described in Besenji, Norwegian Elkhounds, Shetland Sheepdogs, Miniature Schnauzers);
3. The use of certain nephrotoxic drugs.
4. Acute renal failure or aminoglycoside toxicity - if the level of urea in the blood is elevated.

3. Glucosuria with reduced specific gravity of urine(1.015 - 1.018) can be with the introduction of glucose.
4. Moderate glucosuria occurs in healthy animals with a significant alimentary load of feeds with a high content of carbohydrates.

False positive result when determining glucose in the urine with test strips, it is possible in cats with cystitis.

False negative result when determining glucose in the urine with test strips, it is possible in dogs in the presence of ascorbic acid (it is synthesized in dogs in various quantities).

BILIRUBIN

Normally, there is no bilirubin in the urine of cats., there may be trace amounts of bilirubin in concentrated dog urine.

Bilirubinuria- the appearance of bilirubin (direct) in the urine.
Causes:
1. Parenchymal jaundice (lesion of the liver parenchyma);
2. Obstructive jaundice (violation of the outflow of bile).

It is used as an express method for the differential diagnosis of hemolytic jaundice - bilirubinuria is not typical for them, since indirect bilirubin does not pass through the renal filter.

UROBILINOGEN

Upper limit of normal urobilinogen in the urine about 10 mg / l.

Urobilinogenuria- increased levels of urobilinogen in the urine.
Causes:
1. Increased hemoglobin catabolism: hemolytic anemia, intravascular hemolysis (transfusion of incompatible blood, infections, sepsis), pernicious anemia, polycythemia, resorption of massive hematomas;
2. Increase in the formation of urobilinogen in the gastrointestinal tract: enterocolitis, ileitis;
3. An increase in the formation and reabsorption of urobilinogen in inflammation of the biliary system - cholangitis;
4. Impaired liver function: chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver, toxic liver damage (poisoning with organic compounds, toxins in infectious diseases and sepsis); secondary liver failure (cardiac and circulatory failure, liver tumors);
5. Liver bypass: cirrhosis of the liver with portal hypertension, thrombosis, obstruction of the renal vein.

Of particular diagnostic importance is:
1. With lesions of the liver parenchyma in cases that occur without jaundice;
2. For the differential diagnosis of parenchymal jaundice from obstructive jaundice, in which there is no urobilinogenuria.

KETONE BODIES

Normally, there are no ketone bodies in the urine.

Ketonuria- the appearance of ketone bodies in the urine (as a result of accelerated incomplete oxidation of fatty acids as an energy source).
Causes:
1. Severe decompensation of type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) and long-term type II diabetes (insulin-independent) with depletion of pancreatic beta-cells and the development of absolute insulin deficiency.
2. Pronounced - hyperketonemic diabetic coma;
3. Precomatose states;
4. Cerebral coma;
5. Prolonged fasting;
6. Severe fever;
7. Hyperinsulinism;
8. Hypercatecholemia;
9. Postoperative period.

NITRITES

Normally, nitrites are absent in the urine.

The appearance of nitrites in the urine indicates infection of the urinary tract, since many pathogenic bacteria restore the nitrates present in the urine to nitrites.
Of particular diagnostic importance is when determining asymptomatic infections of the urinary tract (in the risk group - animals with prostate neoplasms, patients with diabetes mellitus, after urological operations or instrumental procedures on the urinary tract).

erythrocytes

Normally, there are no erythrocytes in the urine or allowed physiological microhematuria in the study of test strips is up to 3 erythrocytes / μl of urine.

Hematuria- the content of erythrocytes in the urine in an amount of more than 5 in 1 µl of urine.

Gross hematuria- installed with the naked eye.

Microhematuria- is detected only with the help of test strips or microscopy. Often due to cystocentesis or catheterization.

Hematuria originating from the bladder and urethra.
Approximately 75% of cases of gross hematuria, often combined with dysuria and pain on palpation.
Causes:
1. Stones in the bladder and urethra;
2. Infectious or drug-induced (cyclophosphamide) cystitis;
3. Urethritis;
4. Bladder tumors;
5. Injuries of the bladder and urethra (crushing, ruptures).
An admixture of blood only at the beginning of urination indicates bleeding between the neck of the bladder and the opening of the urethra.
The admixture of blood mainly at the end of urination indicates bleeding in the bladder.

Hematuria originating from the kidneys (approximately 25% of cases of hematuria).
Uniform hematuria from beginning to end of urination. Microscopic examination of the sediment in this case reveals erythrocyte cylinders. Such bleeding is relatively rare, associated with proteinuria and less intense than bleeding in the urinary tract.
Causes:
1. Physical overload;
2. Infectious diseases (leptospirosis, septicemia);
3. Hemorrhagic diathesis of various etiologies;
4. Coagulopathy (poisoning with dicumarol);
5. Consumption coagulopathy (DIC);
6. Kidney injury;
7. Thrombosis of the vessels of the kidneys;
8. Neoplasms of the kidneys;
9. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
10. Pyelitis, pyelonephritis;
11. Glomerulo- and tubulonephrosis (poisoning, taking medications);
12. Strong venous congestion;
13. Displacement of the spleen;
14. Systemic lupus erythematosus;
15. Overdose of anticoagulants, sulfonamides, urotropine.
16. Idiopathic renal hematuria.
Bleeding, occurring independently of urination, are localized in the urethra, prepuce, vagina, uterus (estrus) or prostate gland.

HEMOGLOBIN, MYOGLOBIN

Normally, when examining with test strips, it is absent.

Causes of myoglobinuria:
1. Muscle damage (the level of creatine kinase in the circulating blood increases).
Hemoglobinuria is always accompanied by hemoglobinemia. If hemolyzed red blood cells are found in the urinary sediment, the cause is hematuria.

Microscopic examination of the sediment.

There are elements of organized and unorganized urine sediments. The main elements of organized sediment are erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelium and cylinders; unorganized - crystalline and amorphous salts.

EPITHELIUM

Fine in the urine sediment, single cells of the squamous (urethra) and transitional epithelium (pelvis, ureters, bladder) are found in the field of view. The renal epithelium (tubules) is normally absent.

Squamous epithelial cells. Normally, females are found in greater numbers. Detection of layers of squamous epithelium and horny scales in the sediment is a sign of squamous metaplasia of the mucous membrane of the urinary tract.

Transitional epithelial cells.
The reasons for the significant increase in their number:
1. Acute inflammatory processes in the bladder and renal pelvis;
2. Intoxication;
3. Urolithiasis;
4. Neoplasms of the urinary tract.

Epithelial cells of the urinary tubules (renal epithelium).
The reasons for their appearance:
1. Jades;
2. Intoxication;
3. Insufficiency of blood circulation;
4. Necrotic nephrosis (in case of poisoning with sublimate, antifreeze, dichloroethane) - epithelium in a very large amount;
5. Amyloidosis of the kidneys (rarely in the albuminemic stage, often in the edematous-hypertonic and azotemic stages);
6. Lipoid nephrosis (desquamated renal epithelium is often found to be fat-transformed).
When conglomerates of epithelial cells are found, especially moderately or significantly varying in shape and / or size, further cytological examination is necessary to determine the possible malignancy of these cells.

leukocytes

Normally, there are no leukocytes or there may be single leukocytes in the field of view (0-3 leukocytes in the field of view at a magnification of 400).

Leukocyturia- more than 3 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope at a magnification of 400.
Piuria- more than 60 leukocytes in the field of view of the microscope at a magnification of 400.

Infectious leukocyturia, often pyuria.
Causes:
1. Inflammatory processes in the bladder, urethra, renal pelvis.
2. Infected discharge from the prostate, vagina, uterus.

Aseptic leukocyturia.
Causes:
1. Glomerulonephritis;
2. Amyloidosis;
3. Chronic interstitial nephritis.

erythrocytes

Normally, in the urine sediment there are no or single in the preparation (0-3 in the field of view at a magnification of 400).
The appearance or increase in the number of red blood cells in the urine sediment is called hematuria.
Reasons see above in the section "Urine chemistry".

CYLINDERS

Fine hyaline and granular casts can be found in the urine sediment - single in the preparation - with unchanged urine.
urinary casts not present in alkaline urine. Neither the number nor the type of urinary casts is indicative of the severity of the disease and is not specific for any kidney disease. The absence of casts in the urine sediment does not indicate the absence of kidney disease.

Cylindruria- the presence in the urine of an increased number of cylinders of any type.

Hyaline casts are composed of protein that has entered the urine due to congestion or inflammation.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Proteinuria not associated with kidney damage (albuminemia, venous congestion in the kidneys, strenuous exercise, cooling);
2. Feverish conditions;
3. Various organic lesions of the kidneys, both acute and chronic;
4. Dehydration.
There is no correlation between the severity of proteinuria and the number of hyaline casts, since the formation of casts depends on the pH of the urine.

Granular cylinders are made up of tubular epithelial cells.
Reasons for education:
1. The presence of severe degeneration in the epithelium of the tubules (necrosis of the epithelium of the tubules, inflammation of the kidneys).
Waxy cylinders.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Severe lesions of the kidney parenchyma (both acute and chronic).

erythrocyte casts are formed from accumulations of erythrocytes. Their presence in the urine sediment indicates a renal origin of hematuria.
Causes:
1. Inflammatory diseases of the kidneys;
2. Bleeding into the kidney parenchyma;
3. Kidney infarctions.

Leukocyte casts- are quite rare.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Pyelonephritis.

SALT AND OTHER ELEMENTS

Salt precipitation depends on the properties of urine, in particular, on its pH.

In acidic urine they precipitate:
1. Uric acid
2. Uric acid salts;
3. Calcium phosphate;
4. Calcium sulfate.

In the urine, giving the main (alkaline) reaction precipitate:
1. Amorphous phosphates;
2. Tripelphosphates;
3. Neutral magnesium phosphate;
4. Calcium carbonate;
5. Crystals of sulfonamides.

crystalluria- the appearance of crystals in the urinary sediment.

Uric acid.
Fine uric acid crystals are absent.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Pathologically acidic pH of urine in renal failure (early precipitation - within an hour after urination);
2. Fever;
3. Conditions accompanied by increased tissue breakdown (leukemia, massive decaying tumors, pneumonia in the resolution stage);
4. Heavy physical activity;
5. Uric acid diathesis;
6. Feeding exclusively meat feed.

Amorphous urates- uric acid salts give the urine sediment a brick-pink color.
Fine- single in the field of view.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis;
2. Chronic renal failure;
3. "Congestive kidney";
4. Fever.

Oxalates- salts of oxalic acid, mainly calcium oxalate.
Fine oxalates are single in the field of view.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Pyelonephritis;
2. Diabetes mellitus;
3. Violation of calcium metabolism;
4. After epilepsy attacks;
5. Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning.

Tripelphosphates, neutral phosphates, calcium carbonate.
Fine missing.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Cystitis;
2. Abundant intake of plant foods;
3. Vomiting.
Can cause the development of stones.

Acidic ammonium urate.
Fine absent.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Cystitis with ammonia fermentation in the bladder;
2. Uric acid kidney infarction in newborns.
3. Insufficiency of the liver, especially with congenital portosystemic shunts;
4. Dalmatian dogs in the absence of pathology.

cystine crystals.
Fine absent.
Reasons for the appearance: cytinosis (congenital disorder of amino acid metabolism).

Crystals of leucine, tyrosine.
Fine missing.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Acute yellow liver atrophy;
2. Leukemia;
3. Phosphorus poisoning.

Cholesterol crystals.
Fine missing.

Reasons for the appearance:
1. Amyloid and lipoid dystrophy of the kidneys;
2. Neoplasms of the kidneys;
3. Kidney abscess.

Fatty acid.
Fine missing.
Reasons for the appearance (they are very rare):
1. Fatty degeneration of the kidneys;
2. Disintegration of the epithelium of the renal tubules.

Hemosiderin is a breakdown product of hemoglobin.
Fine absent.
Reasons for the appearance - hemolytic anemia with intravascular hemolysis of erythrocytes.

Hematoidin- a product of the breakdown of hemoglobin that does not contain iron.
Fine absent.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Calculous (associated with the formation of stones) pyelitis;
2. Kidney abscess;
3. Neoplasms of the bladder and kidneys.

BACTERIA

Bacteria are normally absent or are determined in urine obtained by spontaneous urination or with the help of a catheter, in an amount not exceeding 2x103 bact. / ml of urine.

Of decisive importance is the quantitative content of bacteria in the urine.
 100,000 (1x105) or more microbial bodies per ml of urine - an indirect sign of inflammation in the urinary organs.
 1000 - 10000 (1x103 - 1x104) microbial bodies per ml of urine - cause suspicion of inflammatory processes in the urinary tract. In females, this amount may be normal.
 less than 1000 microbial bodies per ml of urine is regarded as the result of secondary contamination.

In the urine obtained by cystocentesis, bacteria should normally not be present at all.
In the study of a general analysis of urine, only the fact of bacteriuria is stated. In the native preparation, 1 bacterium in the oil immersion field of view corresponds to 10,000 (1x104) bacteria/ml, but bacteriological examination is necessary to accurately determine the quantitative characteristics.
The presence of a urinary tract infection can be signaled by simultaneously detected bacteriuria, hematuria and pyuria.

YEAST FUNGI

Normally absent.
Reasons for the appearance:
1. Glucosuria;
2. Antibiotic therapy;
3. Long-term storage of urine.

A general urinalysis includes an assessment physico-chemical characteristics of urine and sediment microscopy. This study allows you to evaluate the function of the kidneys and other internal organs, as well as to identify the inflammatory process in the urinary tract. Together with a general clinical blood test, the results of this study can tell quite a lot about the processes occurring in the body and, most importantly, indicate the direction of further diagnostic search.

Indications for the purpose of the analysis:

Secondary ketonuria:
- thyrotoxicosis;
- Itsenko-Cushing's disease; hyperproduction of corticosteroids (tumor of the anterior pituitary or adrenal glands);

Hemoglobin.

Norm: dogs, cats - absent.

Hemoglobinuria is characterized by red or dark brown (black) urine, dysuria. Hemoglobinuria must be distinguished from hematuria, alkaptonuria, melaninuria, and porphyria. With hemoglobinuria, there are no erythrocytes in the urine sediment, anemia with reticulocytosis and an increase in the level of indirect bilirubin in the blood serum are detected.

When does hemoglobin or myoglobin appear in the urine (hemoglobinuria)?

hemolytic anemia.
- Severe poisoning (sulfonamides, phenol, aniline dyes,
- After an epileptic seizure.
- Transfusion of incompatible blood type.
-
- Sepsis.
- Severe injuries.

Microscopy of urinary sediment.

In the urinary sediment, organized sediment (cellular elements, cylinders, mucus, bacteria, yeast fungi) and unorganized (crystalline elements) are distinguished.
Erythrocytes.

Norm: dogs, cats - 1 - 3 erythrocytes in the field of view.
Everything above is hematuria.

Allocate:
- gross hematuria (when the color of urine is changed);
- microhematuria (when the color of urine is not changed, and erythrocytes are found only under a microscope).

In the urinary sediment, erythrocytes can be unchanged and changed. The appearance of altered erythrocytes in the urine is of great diagnostic value, because they are most often of renal origin. Unaltered erythrocytes are more characteristic for lesions of the urinary tract (urolithiasis, cystitis, urethritis).

When does the number of red blood cells increase (hematuria)?

Urolithiasis disease.
- Tumors of the genitourinary system.
- Glomerulonephritis.
- Pyelonephritis.
- Infectious diseases of the urinary tract (cystitis, tuberculosis).
- Kidney injury.
- Poisoning with derivatives of benzene, aniline, snake venom, anticoagulants, poisonous mushrooms.

Leukocytes.

Norm: dogs, cats - 0–6 leukocytes per field of view.

When does the white blood cell count increase (leukocyturia)?

Acute and chronic glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis.
- Cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis.
- Stones in the ureter.
- Tubulointerstitial nephritis.

epithelial cells.

Norm: dogs and cats - single or absent.

Epithelial cells have different origins:
- squamous epithelial cells (washed off by night urine from the external genital organs);
- cells of the transitional epithelium (line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, pelvis, large ducts of the prostate gland);
- cells of the renal (tubular) epithelium (line the renal tubules).

When does the number of epithelial cells increase?

cell enhancement squamous epithelium has no significant diagnostic value. It can be assumed that the patient was not properly prepared for the collection of the analysis.

cell enhancement transitional epithelium:
- intoxication;
- intolerance to anesthesia, drugs, after operations;
- jaundice of various etiologies;
- urolithiasis (at the time of passage of the stone);
- chronic cystitis;

The appearance of cells renal epithelium:
- pyelonephritis;
- intoxication (taking salicylates, cortisone, phenacetin, bismuth preparations, poisoning with salts of heavy metals, ethylene glycol);
- tubular necrosis;

Cylinders.

Norm: dogs and cats are absent.

The appearance of cylinders (cylindruria) is a symptom of kidney damage.

When and what cylinders appear in the general analysis of urine (cylindruria)?

Hyaline casts are found in all organic kidney diseases, their number depends on the severity of the condition and the level of proteinuria.

Granular cylinders:
- glomerulonephritis;
- pyelonephritis;
- kidney cancer;
- diabetic nephropathy;
- infectious hepatitis;
- osteomyelitis.

Waxy cylinders indicate severe kidney damage.

Leukocyte casts:
- acute pyelonephritis;
- exacerbation of chronic pyelonephritis;
- Kidney abscess.

RBC cylinders:
- kidney infarction;
- embolism;
- acute diffuse glomerulonephritis.

Pigment cylinders:
- prerenal hematuria;
- hemoglobinuria;
- myoglobinuria.

Epithelial casts:
- acute renal failure;
- tubular necrosis;
- acute and chronic glomerulonephritis.

Fat cylinders:
- chronic glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis complicated by nephrotic syndrome;
- lipoid and lipoid-amyloid nephrosis;
- diabetic nephropathy.

bacteria.

Fine the urine in the bladder is sterile. The detection of bacteria in the analysis of urine more than 50,000 in 1 ml indicates an infectious lesion of the organs of the urinary system (pyelonephritis, urethritis, cystitis, etc.). It is possible to determine the type of bacteria only with the help of bacteriological research.

Yeast fungi.

The detection of yeast of the genus Candida indicates candidiasis, which occurs most often as a result of irrational antibiotic therapy, the use of immunosuppressants, and cytostatics.

Determination of the type of fungus is possible only with bacteriological examination.

Slime.

Mucus is secreted by the epithelium of the mucous membranes. Normally absent or present in the urine in small quantities. With inflammatory processes in the lower urinary tract, the content of mucus in the urine increases.

Crystals (unorganized sediment).

Urine is a solution of various salts, which can precipitate (form crystals) when the urine is standing. The presence of certain salt crystals in the urinary sediment indicates a change in the reaction to the acidic or alkaline side. Excessive salt content in the urine contributes to the formation of stones and the development of urolithiasis.

When and what kind of crystals appear in the general analysis of urine?
- Uric acid and its salts (urates): can normally occur in Dalmatians and English Bulldogs, in dogs of other breeds and cats are associated with liver failure and porotosystemic anastomoses.
- Tripelphosphates, amorphous phosphates: often found in slightly acidic or alkaline urine in healthy dogs and cats; may be associated with cystitis.

Calcium oxalate:

Severe infectious diseases;
- pyelonephritis;
- diabetes;
- ethylene glycol poisoning;

Cystine:

Cirrhosis of the liver;
- viral hepatitis;
- state of hepatic coma
- Bilirubin: May occur in healthy dogs with concentrated urine or due to bilirubinuria.

Often, when visiting a veterinary clinic, the veterinarian recommends that you give the urine of the animal for a general analysis. This study is necessary to make an accurate diagnosis or evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment.

When conducting a general analysis of urine, indicators such as color, transparency, urine reaction and its specific gravity (relative density) are taken into account.

Normal urine in dogs is yellow. The color of urine is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in it. A lighter color of urine indicates a decrease in the concentration of substances dissolved in it. When the concentration increases, the urine acquires a rich yellow tint. Under the influence of certain drugs, the color of urine may change.

The color of urine can change significantly, which indicates serious diseases. Hematuria(urine color red-brown), bilirubinemia(piss the color of beer) myoglobinuria(black urine) leukocyturia(milky white urine).

In a perfectly healthy dog, urine is normally clear. If the laboratory report says that the urine is cloudy, then this may indicate the presence of a large amount of salts, bacteria or epithelium in it.

Urine reaction is the level of its acidity. Changes in this indicator are due to the diet of the animal. With a meat diet, urine is acidic, and with a vegetable diet, it is alkaline. If the diet is mixed, then the norm is considered to be weakly acidic urine.

Specific gravity urine is determined by comparing the density of urine with the density of water. This indicator indicates the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine. In dogs, the density of urine is normally 1.02-1.035.

Chemical analysis of urine

When conducting a chemical analysis, the level of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin and urobilinogen in the urine is assessed.

Protein

Normally, the protein content in the urine is considered to be up to 0.3 g / l. An increased amount of protein in the urine is called proteinuria. Proteinuria occurs with chronic infections, destructive processes in the kidneys, with urolithiasis.

Glucose

In the urine of a healthy dog, glucose is normally absent. The presence of glucose in the urine is called glucosuria. This may be due to a high concentration of glucose in the blood or in violation of the processes of glucose filtration and reabsorption in the kidneys. This happens with diseases such as diabetes and acute renal failure.

Ketone bodies is acetoacetic acid, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid. Normally, there are no ketone bodies in the urine. When detecting ketone bodies in the urine, it is necessary to determine the presence of glucose in the urine. If sugar is detected, then diabetic acidosis is diagnosed.

If ketone bodies are found in the dog's urine, but there is no sugar, then the cause may be acidosis associated with starvation, gastrointestinal disorders, or severe toxicosis.

Bilirubin And urobilinogen are bile pigments that can appear in the urine.

Normally, bile pigments are absent in the urine of healthy dogs. The presence of bilirubin in the urine indicates liver damage or violations of the outflow of bile.

Urobilinogen is formed in the small intestine from bilirubin excreted in bile. The appearance of urobilinogen in the urine indicates various liver lesions and diseases of the gallbladder, with enteritis, constipation, etc.

Microscopy of urine sediment

The urine sediment is examined after its centrifugation. In the urine sediment, both elements of organic origin (leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells and cylinders) can be present - this is an organized sediment, and elements of inorganic origin (salts) - this is an unorganized urine sediment.

The presence of red blood cells in the urine is called hematuria. Hematuria occurs when the urinary tract is affected, with cystitis and urethritis.

There are no more than 1-2 leukocytes in the urine of a healthy animal in the field of view of the microscope. An increased content of leukocytes in the urine (pyuria) indicates inflammatory processes either in the kidneys (pyelonephritis) or in the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Epithelial cells are always present in the urine sediment. The presence of no more than 5 cells in the field of view of the microscope is considered the norm. The origin of epithelial cells is different. Squamous epithelial cells that enter the urine, for example, from the vagina, have no diagnostic value. The appearance in the urine of a large number of transitional epithelial cells may indicate inflammation of the bladder, ureters or prostate in male dogs.

A cylinder is called a protein that has coagulated in the renal tubules, as a result of which it takes the form of the tubules themselves. Normally, there are no casts in the urine sediment of a healthy dog. Cylindruria(the presence of cylinders in the urine sediment) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Unorganized urine sediment consists of salts that precipitate either as crystals or as amorphous masses. The composition of salts largely depends on the acidity (pH) of urine. So, for example, with an acid reaction of urine, uric acid, urates, oxalates are found in it. If the urine reaction is alkaline, it may contain calcium salts and phosphates.

Normally, urine in the bladder is sterile. However, when urinating, microbes from the lower urethra enter the urine; in a healthy dog, their number does not exceed 10,000 per 1 ml. Bacteriuria refers to the detection of bacteria in excess of the norm, which indicates the presence of a urinary tract infection.

Has your pet had a blood or urine test? Or even an EKG? And now you have received the results of the tests. All indicators are written on the letterhead of the veterinary clinic. You read names that are unusual for you, look at a column of mysterious numbers - and ... you don’t understand anything! Common situation? I don’t know what thoughts you had, but when I first received such a leaflet, I had the feeling that I was trying to make out the cuneiform writing of the ancient Egyptians! No, of course, the doctor, after looking at the results of the tests, told me then that everything was fine with my puppy, there were no particular reasons for concern, only the hemoglobin level was slightly lower, I should have walked more with him in the fresh air ...

Maybe it was just curiosity that got the best of me, but most likely the concern about the condition of my four-legged friend made me then sort out this “Egyptian cuneiform”. So, what can the results of the tests of his pet tell the owner of a dog? I would like to emphasize that this entire note is purely educational in nature and cannot be used in any way to make a diagnosis. Only a veterinarian can diagnose your pet and cure it!

And it should also be remembered that the values \u200b\u200bof the indicators that are considered to be the “norm” are averaged. Normal values may differ significantly depending on the sex, age, size of the animal. In addition, the individual characteristics of the dog should be taken into account: the diseases she has suffered, the medications she takes, her diet, etc. - all this also has a significant impact on the results of the analyzes. In other words, only a qualified specialist can correctly interpret the results of the analyzes. And we will just try to figure out what indicators are measured during the analysis, what are the norms for these indicators, and what the deviation of the values from the norm in one direction or another may indicate.

General urinalysis in dogs

When conducting a general analysis of urine, indicators such as color, transparency, urine reaction and its relative density (specific gravity) are evaluated.

Fine urine color yellow, it is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the urine. If the urine acquires a lighter color (polyuria), then this indicates a decrease in the concentration of dissolved substances, if the concentration increases, then the urine acquires a rich yellow hue (diuresis). The color of urine may change under the influence of certain drugs.

A significant change in the color of urine may indicate serious diseases, such as hematuria (urine color red-brown), bilirubinemia (urine the color of beer), myoglobinuria (urine black), leukocyturia (milky white urine).

Urine of an absolutely healthy dog is completely normal transparent. If the conclusion says that the urine is cloudy, then this may indicate the presence of a large amount of salts, bacteria or epithelium in it.

Urine reactionis its acidity level. Fluctuations in this indicator are due to the animal's diet: a meat diet gives an acidic urine reaction, and a vegetable one gives an alkaline one. If the diet is mixed, then predominantly acidic metabolic products are formed, therefore, a slightly acidic reaction of urine is considered the norm. It should be borne in mind that the reaction of urine must be determined immediately upon delivery to the laboratory, since urine decomposes rather quickly and its pH shifts to the alkaline side due to the release of ammonia.

Specific gravityurine is determined by comparing the density of urine with the density of water. This indicator reflects the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine, based on which the renal function of the animal is assessed. The normal value is the density of urine in the range of 1.02-1.035.

Chemical analysis of urine

When conducting a chemical analysis, the level of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin and urobilinogen in the urine is assessed.

Protein

The norm is the content of protein in the urine in an amount of up to 0.3 g / l. An increased amount of protein in the urine is called proteinuria. The causes of proteinuria can be chronic infections or destructive processes in the kidneys, urinary tract infections or urolithiasis, and hemolytic anemia.

Glucose

In the urine of a healthy dog, glucose should not be normal. Glycosuria (the presence of glucose in the urine) may be due to either a high concentration of glucose in the blood or a violation of the processes of glucose filtration and reabsorption in the kidneys. This may indicate diseases such as diabetes and acute renal failure.

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid. On average, from 20 to 50 mg of ketone bodies are excreted in the urine of an adult dog per day, which are not detected in one-time analyzes, so the absence of ketone bodies in the urine is considered the norm. When detecting ketone bodies in the urine, it is necessary to determine the presence of sugar in the urine. If sugar is detected, the diagnosis of diabetic acidosis (or even coma, depending on the symptoms and condition of the animal) is usually made.

If ketone bodies are found in the urine, but there is no sugar, then the cause may be acidosis associated with starvation, or with gastrointestinal disorders, or with severe toxicosis.

Bilirubin and urobilinogen are bile pigments that can appear in the urine.

The urine of healthy dogs contains a minimal amount of bilirubin, it is not detected by the usual qualitative tests most often used in practice. Therefore, the absence of bile pigments in the urine is considered the norm. The presence of bilirubin in the urine indicates liver damage or impaired bile outflow, while direct (bound) bilirubin increases in the blood.

Urobilinogen is formed in the small intestine from bilirubin excreted in bile. A positive reaction to urobilinogen is not very informative for differential diagnosis, because observed not only with various liver lesions, but also with diseases of the gallbladder, as well as enteritis, constipation, etc.

Microscopy of urine sediment

In the urine sediment, both elements of organic origin (leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells and cylinders) can be present - this is the so-called organized sediment, and elements of inorganic origin (salts) - this is an unorganized urine sediment.

The presence of red blood cells in the urine is called hematuria. If at the same time there is a change in the color of urine, then we are talking about macrohematuria; if the color of urine remains normal, and erythrocytes are found only under a microscope - about microhematuria. The presence of unchanged erythrocytes in the urine is characteristic of lesions of the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Hemoglobinuria called the presence of hemoglobin in the urine, which is due to intravascular hemolysis. Urine at the same time changes color to coffee. There are no erythrocytes in the urine sediment.

Leukocytes in the urine of a healthy animal are contained in a minimal amount - no more than 1-2 in the field of view of the microscope. Increased leukocyte count in urine pyuria) indicates inflammatory processes either in the kidneys (pyelonephritis) or in the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

epithelial cellsalmost always present in the urine sediment. It is considered normal if their number in the field of view of the microscope does not exceed 5 pieces. The origin of epithelial cells is different. Squamous epithelial cells that enter the urine, for example, from the vagina, have no diagnostic value. But the appearance in the urine of a large number of transitional epithelial cells (they line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, prostate ducts) may indicate inflammation of these organs, and even possible neoplasms of the urinary tract.

A cylinder is a protein that has coagulated in the renal tubules, as a result of which it takes the shape of the tubules themselves (a “cast” of a cylindrical shape is obtained). The absence of cylinders in the urine sediment is considered the norm, since single cylinders per day can be found in the urine of a healthy animal. Cylindruria(the presence of cylinders in the urine sediment) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Unorganized urine sediment consists of salts that precipitate either as crystals or as amorphous masses. The composition of salts largely depends on the pH of the urine. So, for example, with an acid reaction of urine, uric acid, urates, oxalates are found in it. If the urine reaction is alkaline, it may contain calcium, phosphates.

Normally, urine in the bladder is sterile. However, when urinating, microbes from the lower urethra enter the urine; in a healthy dog, their number does not exceed 10,000 per 1 ml. Under bacteriuria is understood as the detection of bacteria in an amount exceeding the norm, which indicates the presence of a urinary tract infection.

Complete blood count in dogs

Hemoglobin is a blood pigment in red blood cells that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. An increase in hemoglobin levels can occur due to an increase in the number of red blood cells ( polycythemia), may be due to excessive physical activity. Also, an increase in hemoglobin levels is characteristic of dehydration and thickening of the blood. Decreased hemoglobin levels indicate anemia.

Erythrocytes are non-nuclear blood elements containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk of the blood cells. An increased number of red blood cells ( erythrocytosis) may be due to bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic or neoplasms of the kidneys or liver, as well as dehydration. A decrease in the number of red blood cells can be caused by anemia, large blood loss, chronic inflammatory processes, and overhydration.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (SOE) in the form of a column when settling blood depends on their quantity, "weight" and shape, as well as on the properties of plasma - the amount of proteins in it and viscosity. An increased ESR value is characteristic of various infectious diseases, inflammatory processes, and tumors. An increased ESR value is also observed during pregnancy.

platelets are platelets formed from bone marrow cells. They are responsible for blood clotting. An increased content of platelets in the blood can be caused by diseases such as polycythemia, myeloid leukemia, inflammatory processes. Also, the platelet count may increase after some surgical operations. A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood is characteristic of systemic autoimmune diseases (lupus erythematosus), aplastic and hemolytic anemia.

Leukocytesare white blood cells produced in the red bone marrow. They perform a very important immune function: they protect the body from foreign substances and microbes. There are different types of leukocytes. Each species has a specific function. Diagnostic value has a change in the number of individual types of leukocytes, and not all leukocytes in total.

An increase in the number of leukocytes ( leukocytosis) can be caused by leukemia, infectious and inflammatory processes, allergic reactions, long-term use of certain medications.

Decrease in the number of leukocytes ( leukopenia ) may be due to infectious pathologies of the bone marrow, hyperfunction of the spleen, genetic abnormalities, anaphylactic shock.

Leukocyte formula is the percentage of different types of leukocytes in the blood.

1. Neutrophils- these are leukocytes responsible for fighting inflammatory and infectious processes in the body, as well as for removing their own dead and dead cells. Young neutrophils have a rod-shaped nucleus, the nucleus of mature neutrophils is segmented. In the diagnosis of inflammation, it is the increase in the number of stab neutrophils (stab shift) that matters. Normally, they make up 60-75% of the total number of leukocytes, stab - up to 6%. An increase in the content of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) indicates the presence of an infectious or inflammatory process in the body, intoxication of the body, or psycho-emotional arousal. A decrease in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia) can be caused by some infectious diseases (most often viral or chronic), bone marrow pathology, and genetic disorders.

3. Basophils- leukocytes involved in immediate type hypersensitivity reactions. Normally, their number is no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. An increase in the number of basophils (basophilia) may indicate an allergic reaction to the introduction of a foreign protein (including food allergy), chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, and blood diseases.

4. Lymphocytesare the main cells of the immune system that fight viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered own cells of the body. Lymphocytes provide the so-called specific immunity: they recognize foreign proteins - antigens, and selectively destroy the cells containing them. Lymphocytes secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - these are substances that can block antigen molecules and remove them from the body. Lymphocytes make up 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes.

Lymphocytosis (an increase in the level of lymphocytes) may be due to viral infections or lymphocytic leukemia. A decrease in the level of lymphocytes (lymphopenia) can be caused by the use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, as well as malignant neoplasms, or kidney failure, or chronic liver disease, or immunodeficiency states.

5. Monocytes- These are the largest leukocytes, the so-called tissue macrophages. Their function is the final destruction of foreign cells and proteins, foci of inflammation, destroyed tissues. Monocytes are the most important cells of the immune system that are the first to encounter an antigen. Monocytes present antigen to lymphocytes for the development of a full-fledged immune response. Their number is 0-2% of the total number of leukocytes.

The average values of the norm of indicators determined by the general blood test of dogs are shown in the table.

Index	Floor	Up to 12 months		1-7 years old		7 years and older
Index	Floor	Oscillation	Avg.	Oscillation	Avg.	Oscillation	Avg.
erythrocytes (million/µl)	male
erythrocytes (million/µl)	Bitch
hemoglobin (g/dl)	male
hemoglobin (g/dl)	Bitch
leukocytes (thousand µl)	male
leukocytes (thousand µl)	Bitch
mature neutrophils (%)	male
mature neutrophils (%)	Bitch
lymphocytes (%)	male
lymphocytes (%)	Bitch
monocytes (%)	male
monocytes (%)	Bitch
eosinophils (%)	male
eosinophils (%)	Bitch
platelets x 109/l

Biochemical blood test of dogs

In a biochemical analysis of the blood of dogs, the content of certain substances in the blood is determined. The table below provides a list of these substances, the average blood levels of these substances in dogs, and possible reasons for the increase and decrease in the amount of these substances in the blood.

Substance	Unit	Norm	Possible reasons for the increase	Possible reasons for the decline
Glucose	mmol/l	4.3-7.3	Diabetes Exercise stress Thyrotoxicosis Cushing's syndrome Diseases of the pancreas Liver or kidney disease	Starvation Overdose of insulin Tumors Hypofunction of the endocrine glands Severe poisoning Diseases of the pancreas
total protein	g/l	59-73	Dehydration multiple myeloma	Starvation Bowel disease kidney failure Increased consumption (blood loss, burn, inflammation)
Albumen	g/l	22-39	Dehydration	Same as for total protein
Bilirubin total	µmol/l	0-7,5	Liver cell damage Obstruction of the bile ducts
Urea	mmol/l	3-8.5	Impaired kidney function Obstruction of the urinary tract Increased protein content in food	Protein starvation Pregnancy Malabsorption
Creatinine	µmol/l	30-170	Impaired kidney function