The concept of memory. Processes and types of memory. Professional memory and methods of its development. Characteristics of the main memory processes Basic memory processes in psychology
A person lives not only in the world of images of the immediate surrounding reality, but also in the world of images-traces that he retains from past experience. Such traces have a different origin and nature:
- First, in the process of evolution, DNA cells and the nervous system accumulated and stored traces of past influences that ensured adaptive behavior. This biological, or specific, memory;
- secondly, people use the past experience of all mankind. It's theirs historical, or social, memory. Images of past life have been preserved in the form of rock paintings, various structures, games, and traditions. The basic and most essential form of historical memory is writing. The totality of written monuments of different eras and peoples reflects the entire past of mankind since its inception;
- thirdly, it individual, or psychological, memory, which preserves the traces acquired in the process of individual human life. These are knowledge, skills, associations, personal experience. A person accumulates and uses them at the right time.
The main purpose of memory is to update past experience in order to develop solutions to emerging problems. Memory provides a connection between past states of the psyche, present and future actions and mental processes of a person, ensures the coherence and stability of his life experience, the continuity of the existence of consciousness and self-consciousness of the individual. If we imagine that a person loses his memory, this means that he loses his personality as well. A person does not know who he is, where he is, what date it is today. He cannot speak, read, write, use ordinary things. Memory makes it possible to accumulate impressions about the surrounding world, serves as the basis for acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities. Given its importance in the development of human cognition, we can say that memory is the basis of all consciousness.
Memory- this is a reflection of reality, manifested in the preservation and reproduction of traces of past experience.
Through memory, a person reacts to signals or situations that have ceased to act directly on him. Memory images, in contrast to perception images, are representations.
Representation- these are images of objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but which were perceived earlier.
Memory representations can be single And common. For example, a person has an idea of the house in which he lives, and there is an idea of the house in general. The richer a person's general ideas in any area, the more fully and adequately he will perceive real objects. Representations function in the psyche as a process. Any new perception leads to a change in the representation of a particular object.
The properties of memory representations are completeness And generality. The completeness depends on the number of connections of a given object with others. Generalization occurs on the basis of associating each new representation with the old one. The tasks that confront a person cannot be solved solely by the direct use of memory representations, because new tasks are never an exact copy of the previous ones. The first coincide with the second only in general terms, therefore, each time a person creatively transforms the representations of memory, and does not reproduce them mechanically.
The mechanism for the formation of memory representations is the creation and consolidation temporary connections in the cerebral cortex. There are two theories explaining the physiological processes of the formation of memory representations:
- 1) according to neural theory neurons are formed in chains (closed circles) through which biocurrents circulate. Under their influence, changes occur in the synapses, which facilitates the subsequent passage of biocurrents along these pathways;
- 2) according to molecular theory in the protoplasm of neurons, special protein molecules are formed, designed to record and store information.
Temporal connections reflect real associations of objects and phenomena of reality.
Association called the connection between various objects of reality and its reflection in the mind, when the idea of one object causes the appearance of a thought about another.
According to the nature of the connections, simple And complex associations. Simple associations include connections between objects by contiguity (proximity in space or time), similarity (presence of common or similar features), contrast (presence of opposite features); to complex - cause-and-effect, significant semantic relationships. Human memory is not a simple accumulation of information in the central nervous system, but its complex organization, which ensures the selection, preservation of the necessary traces and erasure of unnecessary ones.
G. Ebbinghaus is rightfully considered the founder of the scientific psychology of memory.
Memory as a mental process is mnemonic actions and operations. The main processes of memory are memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.
memorization- this is the process of memory, through which the imprinting of traces occurs, the introduction of new elements of sensations, perception, thinking or experience into the system of associative links.
The basis of memorization is the connections that unite the memorized material into a semantic whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.
Preservation- this is the process of accumulation of material in the structure of memory, including its processing and assimilation. The preservation of experience creates an opportunity for human learning, the development of his perceptual processes, thinking and speech.
Playback- the process of updating the elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A relatively simple form of reproduction is recognition- identification of a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience by establishing a similarity between the perceived object and the image fixed in memory.
Playback happens involuntary And arbitrary. With involuntary reproduction, the image emerges without a special task of updating and without effort on the part of the person. The most common mechanism is association with present thoughts, images, experiences, or actions. Arbitrary reproduction is carried out as a conscious, deliberate process of updating past images.
If there are difficulties during playback, it will go to recollection.
Remembrance is an active, volitional process carried out as an extended mental activity.
In the process of recall, a person finds or completes the necessary intermediate links, selects them and evaluates them in terms of the required task.
example
A typical example of recall is the construction of a verbal response by the student. Knowing the nature and structure of recall, the teacher can provide students (in case they have difficulties) with help in the form of a hint that restores the associative connection. The reproduced information is not an exact copy of what was imprinted in memory. There is always a transformation, restructuring of information depending on the task of the activity, understanding of the material and its significance for the subject.
A lot of images and ideas are stored in the memory, reflecting the events of a person’s life, his knowledge, skills and abilities. But not all images are saved, some of them are forgotten.
Forgetting is a process of memory, the reverse of preservation, which consists in the loss of the possibility of reproducing, and sometimes even recognizing, previously memorized.
What is most often forgotten is that which is insignificant for a person, is not connected with his actual activity. Forgetting can be partial or complete. With partial forgetting, reproduction is carried out completely or with errors. With complete forgetting, the object is not reproduced and is not recognized.
The time during which a person is not able to reproduce the forgotten material may be different. According to this criterion, temporary And prolonged forgetting. The first is characterized by the fact that a person cannot remember anything at the right moment, the second - by the fact that he does not remember the material for a long time. Erasure of traces as a mechanism of forgetting occurs in the absence of reinforcement of temporary connections and their extinction.
Many people complain about their memory, consider it undeveloped, bad due to the fact that they forget a lot. They are wrong about their memory, because without forgetting, normal healthy memory cannot function. A person cannot remember everything that happened to him in the past. As W. James noted, "if we remembered absolutely everything, we would be in the same hopeless situation as if we remembered nothing."
One of the modern hypotheses is the assumption that in fact the whole past of a person is encoded in his brain. Research on "decoding" such information in a state of hypnosis partly confirms it.
- Ebbinghaus Hermann (1850-1909) - German psychologist and philosopher, studied at the universities of Germany, England and France (history, philology, philosophy, psychophysics, psychology). One of the eminent founders of classical experimental psychology in a scientific direction that does not belong to the psychophysiological methodology of experiments of the school of W. Wundt. Since 1880 he was Privatdozent and professor in Berlin, since 1894 he was a professor in Breslau, since 1905 in Halle. Authorially developing experimental techniques, for the first time he systematically studied the psychology of memory (the method of meaningless syllables and retention, the process of memorization, the edge factor, the forgetting curve, etc.). Main works: <<0 памяти" (1885); "Очерк психологии" (1908); "Основы психологии" (1902–1911).
The main processes of memory are memorization, storage, reproduction, recognition, recall and forgetting.
Memory is a memory process by which there are a capture of traces, the introduction of new elements of sensations, perception, thinking or experience into a system of associative connections. The basis of memorization is the connection of material with meaning into one whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.
Memorization can be conscious (purposeful) or unconscious (and involuntary memorization). Memorization is helped by: 1) a fresh head (and for this it is important to get enough sleep), 2) the emotional coloring of the event (if desired, any neutral event can be made emotionally vivid), 3) a positive emotional background (learn to rejoice!), desire, desire to remember. At least when you do not want to remember, usually nothing is remembered. The best thing to remember is the beginning and the end. The law of “place in a series” states that in any sequence, the beginning is easiest to remember, then the end, and the most difficult is the part immediately following the middle. The effect of place in the series is manifested in the performance of any task of this kind - from memorizing a telephone number to memorizing a poem.
Storage - the process of accumulation of material in the structure of memory, including its processing and assimilation. The preservation of experience makes it possible for a person to learn, develop his perceptual (internal assessments, perception of the world) processes, thinking and speech.
Reproduction and recognition is the process of updating the elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A simple form of reproduction is recognition - the recognition of a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience, the establishment of similarities between the object and its image in memory. Reproduction is voluntary and involuntary. With an involuntary image pops up in the head without the efforts of a person.
If in the process of reproduction there are difficulties, then there is a process of recall: the selection of elements necessary from the point of view of the required task. The reproduced information is not an exact copy of what is imprinted in memory. Information is always being transformed, rearranged. As for life events, most people invent rather than remember what happened. Only those who are inclined to believe in fairy tales can believe in human memories.
Forgetting is the loss of the ability to reproduce, and sometimes even recognize, previously memorized. Most often we forget what is insignificant. Forgetting can be partial (reproduction is incomplete or with an error) and complete (impossibility of reproduction and recognition). Distinguish between temporary and long-term forgetting.
Forgetting can be a natural process, and then, first of all, what we don’t think about and what we don’t remember well is forgotten. As a rule, everything we think about before going to bed is forgotten: therefore, write down the important thoughts that came before falling asleep somewhere. On the other hand, sleep well erases bad memories: they lay down, slept, in the morning there are no evening troubles: "Morning is wiser than evening."
Forgetting can be the result of psychological problems, including the consequence of the displacement of unpleasant events: in most people, unpleasant events are forgotten rather than pleasant ones.
- Previous Article Types of memory (V.V. Bogoslovsky)
- Next Article The concept of memory (V. V. Bogoslovsky)
customize font
The main processes of memory are memorization, preservation, recognition and reproduction.
memorization- a process aimed at storing in memory the impressions received, this is a prerequisite for preservation.
Preservation- the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of the material, mastering it. Reproduction and recognition are the processes of restoring what was previously perceived. The difference between them lies in the fact that recognition occurs upon re-encountering the object, upon its repeated perception, while reproduction takes place in the absence of the object.
memorization
Memorization can be arbitrary And involuntary, depending on the presence or absence of the goal of memorization.
Involuntary memorization This is an unintentional memory. With it, a person does not set a goal to remember, does not make efforts to remember, does not use any special techniques that ensure memorization. The material is remembered as if by itself. Events of personal life are involuntarily remembered, especially those that made a strong impression. As the studies of A. A. Smirnov and P. I. Zinchenko showed, what is involuntarily remembered is what is connected with the purpose of the activity, its main content.
In the experiments of P.I. Zinchenko, schoolchildren were asked to solve problems. In one series of experiments, students solved problems according to given conditions, in the second, they themselves came up with the conditions of problems for given numbers, in the third, they invented the conditions of problems and numbers on their own.
Then the students (unexpectedly for them) were asked to reproduce the numbers included in the conditions of the tasks. The results of the experiment showed that the students memorized the numbers best when they made up the whole task themselves (the third series of experiments). The numbers were remembered involuntarily, as they were especially closely related to the purpose of the activity.
The same is observed if students work with a contour map. For example, the teacher sets a goal for them - to designate hills and lowlands on a contour map with a colored pencil. In the process of this work, schoolchildren involuntarily memorize the direction of the flow of rivers, the location of mountains, lakes, seas, cities.
Arbitrary memorization characterized by the presence of a conscious goal - to remember the material. To do this, the process of memorization is organized, strong-willed efforts are applied. In the process of memorization, special techniques are used that contribute to memorization: highlighting the main thoughts, drawing up a plan, repetition, etc.
On another basis - according to the nature of the connections (associations) underlying memory, memorization is divided into mechanical And meaningful.
mechanical memorization based on the consolidation of external relations through repeated repetition.
Meaningful memorization is based on the establishment of semantic connections between the new and already known material and between parts of this material. Separate parts are analyzed and summarized.
Memorization is faster and more durable. Sometimes meaningful memorization alone is not enough, it is necessary to use both meaningful and mechanical memorization, that is, to repeat the material many times after it is understood (when memorizing poems, foreign words, dates, etc.). It is impossible to completely do without rote memorization in learning.
Memory strength
The strength of memory is due to many reasons. Memorization depends on the properties of the individual, his interests and inclinations. What is kept in memory is what corresponds to the interests of a person, and what is not of significant importance to him, what is indifferent to him, is forgotten.
Memorization also becomes successful if there is a stock of knowledge necessary to associate new knowledge with them. A gap in knowledge does not make it possible to assimilate the subsequent material. Not only does knowledge depend on memory, but memory also depends on existing knowledge.
The success of memorization is also affected by the goal that a person faces: whether it is necessary to memorize the material close to the text or “in your own words”, in the same sequence or not. Depending on the purpose, memorization is organized in different ways:
when the consciousness is directed to the accuracy of reproduction, separate phrases and words will be mentally repeated, when the focus is on the sequence of reproduction, semantic connections will be established, the logic of the material will be comprehended.
The focus of consciousness on the strength of memorization is also important: if the student does not have the intention to firmly assimilate, remember for a long time, the material is memorized only by the next lesson and is immediately forgotten. To prevent this, previous knowledge should be systematically tested, accustoming children to reproduce what is necessary in the process of learning new material without special repetition.
For successful memorization of educational material, meaningful memorization techniques are used. These techniques must be taught to schoolchildren, to show how the material is grouped, how it is divided into parts, how connections are established between parts, how semantic strong points are distinguished, heading parts of the text. Students need to explain how to mentally plan a future response. This matters even if the plan is forgotten: it is not the plan itself that is important, but the mental work carried out during its preparation.
The influence of the plan on the success of memorization the table illustrates well.
Reproduction of semantic units of the text in% (according to A. A. Smirnov)
|
The nature of the reproduction |
With a plan |
Without a plan |
|
During direct playback During delayed playback Difference Between Immediate and Delayed Playback (Delay Playback Forgetting) |
70,6
17,5 |
73,1
31,5 |
It is necessary to constantly establish links between new educational material and previously known.
Charts, tables, diagrams make it easier to memorize, especially if they are compiled by the students themselves. It is also useful to teach children to reproduce the material by memorization. Repeated reading always has less effect than active playback. In addition, reproduction is a means of self-control.
Otherwise, it is necessary to organize the memorization of formulas, dates, names, foreign words, etc. When memorizing a foreign word, it is necessary not only to understand its meaning, but also to remember which word of the native language it corresponds to, remember it as a combination of sounds and letters located in a certain sequences. To memorize a word means not only to learn its meaning, but also to keep in memory its sound and visual image, to remember how it is pronounced and written.
To facilitate memorization, you can use the Grouping of words by content, or words with a common root, or words similar in sound composition. It is advisable to compare a new word with a known one, find similarities and differences between them in meaning, in sound and letter composition. Sometimes you can also establish external associations: remember what letter the word begins with, what syllable it ends with, where it is printed in a book or dictionary.
In order to form rational memorization techniques, every teacher must teach children how to prepare lessons. It is not enough, when giving homework, to name only the page number and paragraph. It is necessary to tell students what actions should be taken: what to read, what to find in the picture or on the map, what questions to find an answer to or plan an answer, what words to write out in a special dictionary, what to compare with, in what order to learn the rules and do the exercises or tasks, etc.
It is especially important to teach rational memorization techniques to students in grades IV-V, who are still prone to verbatim memorization of material or resort to cramming.
It is also necessary to explain to students various rational methods of memorizing educational material, in particular, point out the role and place of mechanical memorization when memorizing different material. Children need to be told that repetition distributed over time gives the greatest effect, especially when memorizing poems. Memorization for 2-3 days will require a total of less time than memorization in one session.
Saving and forgetting
Preservation of the memorized depends on the depth of understanding. Well-meaning material is remembered better. Preservation also depends on the attitude of the individual. Significant material for the individual is not forgotten. Forgetting occurs unevenly: immediately after memorization, forgetting is stronger, then it goes more slowly. That is why repetition cannot be postponed, it must be repeated soon after memorization, until the material is forgotten.
Sometimes when saving, a phenomenon is observed reminiscences . Its essence is that reproduction, delayed by 2-3 days, is better than immediately after memorization. Reminiscence is especially pronounced if the original reproduction was not meaningful enough. From a physiological point of view, reminiscence is explained by the fact that immediately after memorization, according to the law of negative induction, inhibition occurs, and then it is removed.
Forgetting can be partial or complete. Partial forgetting manifests itself in the inability to reproduce, but in the ability to know. It is easier to learn than to reproduce. When re-reading or listening, the material seems familiar, but this is not enough for independent reproduction. Assimilated can be considered what a person can not only learn, but also reproduce.
The strength of preservation is ensured by repetition, which serves as reinforcement and prevents forgetting, i.e., from the extinction of temporary connections in the cerebral cortex. Repetition should be varied, carried out in different forms: in the process of repetition, facts must be compared, contrasted, they must be brought into a system. With monotonous repetition, there is no mental activity, interest in memorization decreases, and therefore no conditions are created for lasting preservation. Even more important for conservation is the application of knowledge. When knowledge is applied, it is remembered involuntarily.
Playback
Playback can be involuntary And arbitrary.
Spontaneous playback- unintentional, without purpose, to remember when images pop up by themselves, most often by association.
Random Play- a purposeful process of restoring in the minds of past thoughts, feelings, aspirations, actions.
Sometimes random playback is easy, sometimes it takes effort. Conscious reproduction associated with overcoming known difficulties, requiring volitional efforts, is called recollection .
The qualities of memory are most clearly revealed during reproduction. It is the result of both memorization and retention. We can judge about memorization and preservation only by reproduction. Reproduction is not a simple mechanical repetition of what is imprinted. A reconstruction takes place, that is, a mental processing of the material: the plan of presentation is changed, the main thing is singled out, additional material known from other sources is inserted.
The success of reproduction depends on the ability to restore the connections that were formed during memorization, and on the ability to use the plan during reproduction.
The physiological basis of recognition and reproduction is the revival of traces of previous excitations in the cerebral cortex. Upon recognition, a trace of excitation is revived, which was beaten during memorization. When played back, the animation of the trace can occur based on the association. The revival of the trace of excitation can also occur with secondary signal stimuli: an explanation, the teacher's words enliven previously formed connections.
In order for arbitrary reproduction to be more successful, schoolchildren should be taught special methods of reproduction: recalling semantic associations, recalling basic thoughts, etc.
General psychology. (Textbook for students of pedagogical institutes). Ed. V. V. Bogoslovsky and others. 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1973. - 351 p. pp. 202-206.
The founder of the scientific psychology of memory is the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who experimentally investigated the processes of memory.
It is worth noting that the main memory processes will be memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.
memorization
The original form of memorization is the so-called unintentional or involuntary memorization, i.e. memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques. This is a simple imprint of what influenced, the preservation of a certain trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. Note that each process occurring in the cerebral cortex leaves traces after itself, although the degree of their strength is different.
Involuntarily remembered much of what a person encounters in life: surrounding objects, phenomena, events of everyday life, people's actions, the content of films, books read without any educational purpose, etc., although not all of them are remembered equally well. It is best to remember what is of vital importance for a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity.
Even involuntary memorization is selective, determined by the attitude to the environment.
It is necessary to distinguish from involuntary memorization arbitrary (deliberate) memorization, characterized by the fact that a person sets himself a specific goal - to remember what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. Arbitrary memorization is an activity aimed at memorizing and reproducing retained material, called mnemonic activity. In such an activity, a person is faced with the task of selectively remembering the material offered to him. In all these cases, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions and, when reproducing, limit himself to it. Therefore, mnemonic activity is selective.
Preservation
What a person remembers, the brain stores more or less for a long time. Preservation as a process of memory has ϲʙᴏ and regularities. It is established that saving can be dynamic and static. Dynamic saving will stay in RAM, and static saving will stay in long-term memory. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction, processing.
Reconstruction of the material stored by long-term memory occurs under the influence of the information that is constantly coming in again. Reconstruction will take various forms: in the disappearance of some details and their replacement with other details, in a change in the sequence of material, in its generalization.
Recognition and reproduction
Recognition of an object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that the object is perceived, which was formed in a person earlier or on the basis of personal impressions (representation of memory) or on the basis of verbal descriptions (representation of imagination)
Reproduction differs from perception in that it occurs after it, outside of it. Reproducing the image of an object is more difficult than recognizing it. Thus, it is easier for a student to recognize the text of a book when reading it again (with repeated perception) than to reproduce, recall the content of the text when the book is closed. The physiological basis of reproduction will be the renewal of the neural connections formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena.
Reproduction can take place in the form of sequential recall, ϶ᴛᴏ is an active volitional process. Recall in a person occurs according to the laws of association, in short, while the machine is forced to go through all the information until it “stumbles upon” the necessary fact.
Forgetting
Forgetting is expressed in the inability to remember or in erroneous recognition and reproduction. The physiological basis of forgetting will be some types of cortical inhibition that interferes with the actualization (revival) of temporary nerve connections. Most often, ϶ᴛᴏ extinctive inhibition, which develops in the absence of reinforcement.
It is important to note that one of the causes of forgetting will be the negative impact of the activity following memorization. This phenomenon is called retroactive (reverse acting) inhibition. It is worth noting that it is more pronounced if the activity follows without interruption, if the subsequent activity is similar to the previous one, and if the subsequent activity is more difficult than the activity of memorization.
To combat forgetting, you need to know the patterns of its course.
Neurophysiological foundations of memory
The physiological mechanisms of memory are the formation, fixation, excitation and inhibition of nerve connections. These physiological processes are supported by memory processes: capture, preservation, reproduction And forgetting.
The condition for the successful development of neural connections is the significance of the acting stimulus, its entry into the field of orienting activity, and its reflection in the focus of optimal excitation of the cerebral cortex.
Along with individual memory, there are structures of genetic memory in the brain. By the way, this hereditary memory is localized in thalamohypothalamic complex. Here are the centers of instinctive programs of behavior - food, defensive, sexual - centers of pleasure and aggression. These are the centers of deep biological emotions: fear, longing, joy, anger and pleasure. Here are stored the standards of those images, the real sources of which are instantly assessed as harmful and dangerous or useful and favorable. Codes of emotional-impulsive reactions (postures, facial expressions, defensive and aggressive movements) are recorded in the motor zone
The zone of the subconscious-subjective experience of the individual will be limbic system- here they go and store life-long acquired behavioral automatisms: the emotional attitudes of a given individual, his stable assessments, habits and all kinds of complexes. Here the long-term behavioral memory of the individual is localized, everything that determines his natural intuition.
Everything related to conscious-voluntary activity is stored in neocortex, various zones of the cerebral cortex, projection zones of receptors. frontal lobes of the brain- the sphere of verbal-logical memory. Here sensory information is transformed into semantic information. From a huge array of long-term memory, the necessary information is retrieved in certain ways, they depend on the methods of storing this information, its systematization, and conceptual ordering.
According to modern concepts, the formation engram(nerve connections) goes through two phases. In the first phase, excitation is retained. On the second - its consolidation and preservation due to biochemical changes in the cells of the cerebral cortex and in synapses - intercellular formations.
Today, the physiological foundations of memory on biochemical level. Traces of direct impressions are fixed not instantly, but during a certain time necessary for biochemical processes - ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ changes at the molecular level.
The number of specific changes in RNA (ribonucleic acid) contained in one cell is 10 15 . Therefore, at the level of one cell, a huge number of connections can be developed. Changes in RNA molecules are associated with working memory. Changes in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules - with long-term memory (including species memory) The physiological basis of memory will be a change in the activity of both individual neurons and neuronal ensembles.
In patients with surgically split cerebral hemispheres, memory is sharply weakened - sensory excitations reaching the right hemisphere are not closed at the verbal-logical level provided by the left hemisphere. Functional asymmetry in the activity of the hemispheres is a fundamental feature of the human brain, which is reflected in all its mental processes, incl. memory processes. Note that each hemisphere and each zone of the brain makes a ϲʙᴏth contribution to the system of mnemonic activity. Material published on http: // site
It is assumed that, first, the isolation and ultra-short-term imprinting of individual features of the object (sensory memory), then its complex, symbolic coding - the formation of engrams, their inclusion in the categorical system of a given individual. Therefore, each person has a ϲʙᴏ memorization strategy. The inclusion of the object of memorization in a certain activity determines the structure of its imprinting, the mosaic of the relationship between its sensory and semantic components.
The basic prerequisite for the functioning of memory processes will be the optimal tone of the cortex, provided by the subcortical formations of the brain. Modulation of the tone of the cortex is carried out by the reticular formation and the limbic part of the brain. Subcortical formations, forming an orienting reflex, attention, thereby create a prerequisite for memorization.
The final, synthesizing function of memory is carried out by the frontal lobes of the brain and, to a large extent, by the frontal lobes of the left hemisphere. Damage to these brain structures disrupts the entire structure of mnemic and mental activity. Material published on http: // site
The problem of remembering borders on the problem of forgetting. Forgetting is mainly due to interference - the opposition of stimuli.
Thus, the process of capturing and preserving material is due to its significance, the optimal state of the brain, the increased functioning of the orienting reflex, the systemic inclusion of the material in the structure of purposeful activity, the minimization of side interfering (opposing) influences, the inclusion of the material in the semantic, conceptual field of consciousness of a given individual.
Reproduction, actualization of the necessary material requires the establishment of those systems of connections, against the background of which the material to be reproduced was remembered.
The process of forgetting also does not lead exclusively to the spontaneous extinction of engrams. Mostly, secondary, insignificant material that is not included in the constant activity of the subject is forgotten. But the inability to recall the material does not mean the complete obliteration of its traces. Actualization of engrams depends on the current functional state of the brain. So, in a hypnotic state, a person can remember what seemed completely forgotten.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
KHARKOV NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
named after V.N. Karazin
Department of Sociology
In the discipline "General psychology"
MEMORY, TYPES AND PROCESSES OF MEMORY
Performed:
1st year student
Groups STs-12
Melnik Maria Petrovna
Checked:
Associate Professor, Department of Applied Psychology,
k. psychol. PhD, Associate Professor
Soroka Anatoly Vladimirovich
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………...1
SECTION I. MAIN TYPES OF MEMORY………………………..….2
1.1. According to the duration of material preservation ……………………….…..2
1.2. By the nature of mental activity …….……………………………...3
1.3.By the nature of the objectives of the activity…………….………………………...…..4
SECTION II. MEMORY PROCESSES…………………………………...5
5
2.2.Saving…………………………………………………………………..6
2.3.Playback………………………………………………………………7
2.4.Recognition……………………………………………………………………8
2.5. Forgetting………………………………………………………………………8
CONCLUSION………….………………………………………………………………10
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
Memory – a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.
Images of objects or processes of reality that we perceived earlier and now mentally reproduce are called representations .
Representations of memory are divided into single and general.
Representations of memory are a reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once acted on our senses.
representation of the imagination- this is an idea of \u200b\u200bobjects and phenomena that we have never perceived in such combinations or in such a form. Such representations are a product of our imagination. The representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter serve only as the material from which we create new representations and images with the help of the imagination.
Memory is based on associations, or connections. . Objects or phenomena connected in reality are connected in the memory of a person. Having met with one of these objects, we can, by association, recall another associated with it. To memorize something means to connect memorization with what is already known, to form an association. From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two types of associations: simple and complex. .
Simple ones include:
1. Adjacency associations combine two phenomena related in time or space.
2. Similarity Associations connect two phenomena that have similar features: at the mention of one of them, the other is remembered. Associations are based on the similarity of neural connections that are caused in our brain by two objects.
3. Associations by contrast connect two opposite phenomena. This is facilitated by the fact that in practical activity these opposite objects (organization and laxity,
responsibility and irresponsibility, health and illness, sociability and isolation, etc.) are usually compared and compared, which leads to the formation of the corresponding neural connections.
In addition to these types, there are complex associations – semantic. They connect two phenomena that are in fact constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These associations are the basis of our knowledge.
It is generally accepted that the formation of connections between different representations is determined not by what the memorized material is in itself, but, first of all, by what the subject does with it. That is, the activity of the individual is the main factor determining (determining) the formation of all mental processes, including memory processes.
MAIN MEMORY
Memory can be subdivided according to the duration of the preservation of the material(for instant, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic), by the nature of mental activity(motor memory, visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, emotional, etc.) and by the nature of the objectives of the activity(arbitrary, involuntary).
BY DURATION OF MATERIAL STORAGE:
· Instant , or iconic , memory is associated with the retention of an accurate and complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the sense organs. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Instantaneous memory is the complete residual impression that arises from the direct perception of stimuli. This is a memory-image.
· short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition). In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a prior conscious intention to memorize,
but with the installation for the subsequent reproduction of the material. Short-term memory is characterized by such an indicator as volume.
· It averages from 5 to 9 units of information and is determined by the number of units of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce after a few tens of seconds after a single presentation of this information to him. Only the information that is recognized, correlates with the actual interests and needs of a person, and attracts his increased attention, gets from instantaneous memory into short-term memory.
· Operational called memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After that, the information may disappear from the RAM. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of information storage and its properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.
· long-term is a memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time. Information that has fallen into the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as desired without loss. Moreover, repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory. The latter presupposes the ability of a person at any necessary moment to recall what he once remembered. When using long-term memory, recall often requires thinking and willpower, so its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.
· genetic memory can be defined as one in which information is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. The main biological mechanism for storing information in such a memory is, apparently, mutations and related changes in gene structures. Human genetic memory is the only one that we cannot influence through training and education.
BY THE NATURE OF MENTAL ACTIVITY:
· Visual memory associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. It is extremely important for people of all professions, especially for engineers and artists. A good visual memory is often possessed by people with eidetic perception, who are able to “see” the perceived picture in their imagination for a sufficiently long time after
4 how it ceased to affect the senses. In this regard, this type of memory implies a developed human ability to imagine. It is based, in particular, on the process of memorizing and reproducing material: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, remembers and reproduces more easily.
· auditory memory - this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. It is necessary for philologists, people studying foreign languages, acousticians, musicians. A special kind of speech memory is verbal-logical, which is closely related to the word, thought and logic. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that a person who possesses it can quickly and accurately remember the meaning of events, the logic of reasoning or any evidence, the meaning of the text being read, etc. He can convey this meaning in his own words, and quite accurately. This type of memory is possessed by scientists, experienced lecturers, university professors and school teachers.
· motor memory is the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements. It is involved in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports, skills and abilities. The improvement of human hand movements is directly related to this type of memory.
· emotional memory - it is a memory of experiences. It is involved in the work of all types of memory, but it is especially manifested in human relationships. The strength of material memorization is directly based on emotional memory: what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a longer period.
· Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory. Their role is mainly reduced to the satisfaction of biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the body.
BY THE NATURE OF ACTIVITY OBJECTIVES:
· involuntary memory- this is memorization and reproduction, which occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of a person, without setting a special mnemonic task for him (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction). Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary, in many cases it surpasses it.
Involuntarily, the material with which it is connected is remembered better.
interesting and complex mental work and which is of great importance for a person
· Arbitrary memory- there is always a task for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction, and the process of memorization or reproduction itself requires volitional efforts.
MEMORY PROCESSES
- memorization - the process of memory, through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensations, perception, thinking or experience are introduced into the system of associative links. The basis of memorization is the connection of material with meaning into one whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.
The original form of memory involuntary memorization that occurs without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques. What a person encounters in everyday life is involuntarily remembered, which is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity (surrounding objects, events of everyday life, the content of films and books, people's actions, etc.)
In contrast to involuntary memorization, there is arbitrary (deliberate) memorization, when a person sets a goal - to remember what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a complex mental activity that is subordinate to the task of remembering and includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve this goal. In the learning process, deliberate memorization often takes the form of memorization, i.e. repeated repetition of educational material until its complete and error-free memorization.
Much of what is perceived in life a large number of times is not remembered by us if we do not have the task of remembering. And at the same time, if you set this task before you and perform all the actions necessary for its implementation, memorization proceeds with relatively great success and turns out to be quite strong. Of great importance in this
has a statement not only of the general task (to remember what is perceived), but of more private, special tasks. In some cases,
for example, the task is to remember only the main, main thoughts, the most significant facts, in others - to remember verbatim, thirdly, to remember exactly the sequence of facts, etc. The setting of special tasks has a significant impact on memorization; under its influence, the process itself changes.
Memorization included in some activity turns out to be much more effective than deliberate memorization and memorization, since it turns out to be dependent on the activity in which it is performed.
An important characteristic of the memorization process is the degree of comprehension of the memorized material. There is meaningful and rote memorization.
Rote- memorization without awareness of the logical connection between the various parts of the perceived material. The basis of such memorization is associations by contiguity (one part of the material is associated with another only because it follows it in time; to establish such a connection, repeated repetition of the material is required)
Meaningful memorization- is always associated with the processes of thinking and relies on generalized connections between parts of the material. It is based on understanding the logical connections between the individual parts of the material (for example, two positions, one of which is a conclusion from the other). Meaningful memorization is much more productive than mechanical, it requires less effort and time to memorize. Techniques for comprehending the material: highlighting the main thoughts of the text and grouping them in the form of a plan; selection of semantic strong points; comparison; concretization, explanation of general rules with examples; repetition.
· Preservation - the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of the material, mastering it. The retention of what has been learned depends on the depth of understanding. Well-meaning material is remembered better. Preservation also depends on the attitude of the individual. Significant material for the individual is not forgotten. Forgetting occurs unevenly: immediately after memorization, forgetting is stronger, then it goes more slowly. That is why repetition cannot be postponed, it must be repeated soon after memorization, until the material is forgotten. 7 Sometimes when saving, a phenomenon is observed reminiscences. Its essence is that reproduction, delayed by 2-3 days, is better than immediately after memorization. Reminiscence is especially pronounced if the original reproduction was not meaningful enough. From a physiological point of view, reminiscence is explained by the fact that immediately after memorization, according to the law of negative induction, inhibition occurs, and then it is removed. It has been established that storage can be dynamic and static. Dynamic storage manifests itself in random access memory, while static storage manifests itself in long-term memory. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, while with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction and certain processing. The strength of preservation is ensured by repetition, which serves as reinforcement and protects against forgetting, i.e., from the extinction of temporary connections in the core of the brain. Repetition should be varied, carried out in different forms: in the process of repetition, facts must be compared, contrasted, they must be brought into a system. With monotonous repetition, there is no mental activity, interest in memorization decreases, and therefore no conditions are created for lasting preservation. Even more important for conservation is the application of knowledge. When knowledge is applied, it is remembered involuntarily.· Playback - this is the process of recreating the image of an object that we perceived earlier, but not perceived at the moment.
It can be unintentional (involuntary) or intentional (arbitrary).
In the first case, reproduction occurs unexpectedly for ourselves. A special case of unintentional reproduction is the appearance of images that are characterized by exceptional stability.
With arbitrary reproduction, unlike involuntary, we remember, having a consciously set goal. Such a goal is the desire to remember something from our past experience. There are cases when reproduction proceeds in the form of a more or less prolonged recall. In these cases, the achievement of the goal - to remember something - is carried out through the achievement of intermediate goals that allow solving the main task. For example, in order to remember an event, we try to remember all the facts that are in one way or another connected with it. Moreover, the use of intermediate links is usually conscious. We consciously map out what might help us to remember, or think about how it relates to what
what we are looking for, or evaluating everything we remember, or judging why it is not suitable, etc. Therefore, the processes of remembering are closely related to the processes of thinking.
At the same time, remembering, we often encounter difficulties. At first we remember the wrong thing, reject it and set ourselves the task of remembering something again. It is obvious that all this requires from us certain volitional efforts. Therefore, remembrance is at the same time a volitional process.
· Recognition - a manifestation of memory that occurs when the object is re-perceived.Recognition of an object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of an object, the idea of which has been formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation) or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation).
Its elementary primary form is more or less automatic recognition in action - involuntary recognition. Occurs with a significant coincidence of new impressions with previous impressions and sufficient strength of preservation of these previous impressions. Involuntary recognition is manifested in the form of an adequate response to a familiar stimulus.
Recognition becomes arbitrary and turns into a process remembrance with insufficient coincidence of new impressions with previous impressions, as well as with insufficient strength of preservation of these former impressions. In recollection, a feeling of familiarity of the object first arises, which, however, does not yet allow it to be identified with anything known. And only in the future, finding common features with previous impressions, do we recognize the subject. It has been shown that the volume of recall is less than the volume of recognition. Based on the feeling of familiarity arises false recognition .
The opposite of false recognition is the phenomenon of loss of the familiar. If there is a persistent nature of the loss of familiarity, this agnosia(violation of objects of recognition, phenomena in clear consciousness due to damage to the cerebral cortex).
· Forgetting - a natural process of gradually reducing the possibility of recalling and reproducing the memorized material.
Like retention and memorization, it is selective. the physiological basis of forgetting is the inhibition of temporary connections. First of all, what is forgotten is that which is not of vital importance for a person, does not arouse his interest, does not correspond to his needs.
Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. With total forgetting the fixed material is not only not reproduced, but it is also not recognizable. partial forgetting material occurs when a person reproduces it incompletely or with errors, and also when he recognizes, but cannot reproduce. Physiologists explain temporary forgetting by the inhibition of temporary nerve connections, complete forgetting by their extinction.
The process of forgetting proceeds unevenly: at first quickly, then more slowly. During the first five days after memorization, forgetting goes faster than in the next five days. The most complete and accurate reproduction of complex and extensive material is usually not immediately after memorization, but after 2-3 days. This improved delayed playback is called reminiscence (vague memory) .
Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity immediately preceding memorization and occurring after it. The negative impact of pre-memorization activities is called projective inhibition. The negative impact of the activity following memorization is called retroactive braking, it is especially pronounced in those cases when, after memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant effort.
To reduce forgetting, you need to:
1. understanding, comprehension of information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood information is forgotten quickly and almost completely);
2. repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, since after an hour only 50% of mechanically memorized information remains in memory). It is necessary to repeat more often in the first days after memorization, since on these days the losses from forgetting are maximum.
CONCLUSION
Our mental world is very diverse. Thanks to the high level of development of our psyche, we can and can do a lot. In turn, mental development is possible because we retain the acquired experience and knowledge. Everything that we learn, each of our experiences, impressions or movements leaves a certain trace in our memory, which can be preserved for quite a long time and, under appropriate conditions, manifest itself again and become an object of consciousness. That's why memory - this is the imprinting, preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience. It is thanks to memory that a person is able to accumulate information without losing previous knowledge and skills. Memory occupies a special place among mental cognitive processes, combining all cognitive processes into a single whole. The awareness that the currently perceived object or phenomenon was perceived in the past is called recognition . However, we can do more than just recognize objects. We can evoke in our knowledge the image of an object that we do not perceive at the moment, but perceived it before. This process - the process of recreating the image of an object perceived by us earlier, but not perceived at the moment, is called reproduction . Not only objects perceived in the past are reproduced, but also our thoughts, experiences, desires, fantasies, etc. A necessary prerequisite for recognition and reproduction is imprinting , or remembering, what was perceived, as well as its subsequent preservation . Thus, memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes associated with each other. Memory is necessary for a person - it allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal life experience, it stores knowledge and skills.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Maklakov A. G.
M15 General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 583 p.: ill. - (Series "Textbook of the new century") - Nemov R.S. H50 Psychology: Proc. for stud. higher ped. textbook institutions: In 3 books. - 4th ed. - M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2003. - Book. 1: General foundations of psychology. - 688 p.
3. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Peter", 2000 - 712 p.: ill. – (Series "Masters of Psychology")
