Gems through centuries and countries. The magical properties of precious, semi-precious stones and minerals Where gemstones are used in life

Precious metals and stones are two unique groups of investment items. In this article, we will give you various classifications of precious metals and stones, as well as describe the main areas of their application and, accordingly, investment opportunities for these areas.

Precious metals are a group of metals that are not susceptible to corrosion and oxidation. It is this feature that is distinctive for precious metals.

TO major precious metals include:

1. Gold.
2. Silver.
3. Platinum.
4. Precious metals of the platinum group (palladium, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium, iridium).

The popularity of precious metals is due to the relatively small amount of their world reserves and the uniqueness that they themselves possess and that they endow products made from such precious metals.

Gemstones are traditionally understood as those unique minerals that have a beautiful appearance. The latter, as a rule, is attached to precious stones after processing by polishing or cutting. At the same time, a distinctive feature of precious stones is also their rarity, uniqueness, which causes their high cost.

gems use for such purposes:

• giving more beauty to jewelry;
• collecting;
• increasing their capital (in the case when precious stones act in the form of bank assets).

On the territory of the Russian Federation, all stones that are used in jewelry production are divided into three types:

• jewelry (precious) stones;
• ornamental stones;
• jewelry stones.

TO jewelry (precious) stones relate:

• aquamarine;
• alexandrite;
• diamond;
• amethyst;
• andalusite;
• beryl;
• heliodor;
• rhinestone;
• pomegranate;
• emerald;
• emerald crystals;
• morganite;
• faceted ruby;
• opal;
• rhodolite;
• ruby;
• sapphire;
• tanzanite;
• taffeite;
• topaz;
• chrysoberyl;
• chrysolite;
• zircon and others.

It is important! In accordance with the current legislation of the Russian Federation, those unique amber formations, the list of which is established by the Government of the Russian Federation in the appropriate manner, are also equated to precious stones.

Applications of metals

The list of areas of application of precious metals cannot be given in full, we will try to mention here only the main ones:

• industry;
• jewelry production;
• dentistry;
• pharmacology;
• medicine;
• automotive industry;
• financial investment.

Given the diversity of these areas, which you have noted, we would like to characterize features of precious metals as a financial instrument A:

1. Some precious metals were used in the form of "hard" currency for a long period of time before the appearance of paper money on the world financial market. So, for example, gold for a long time acted as a universal currency for any country, when the value of money was measured not by the nationality of a particular coin, but by the features of its composition and weight.
2. Despite the fact that today the system of backing the currency with gold is not used, and many coins made of precious metals (with the exception of collection samples) have been withdrawn from circulation, many Central banks of individual countries still prefer to keep part of their funds in the form of a certain amount of precious metals, which, of course, allows precious metals to remain one of the most common commodities used in exchange transactions between banks in different countries. At the same time, precious metals remain one of the most important instruments of exchange trading.
3. Today, the relevance of all precious metals is maintained at a high level, despite price fluctuations in the market, as well as minor changes in the dynamics of global supply and demand for precious metals.

Scope of stones

Today, gemstones are usually used as jewelry. They certainly make our life much happier and brighter. Their extraordinary brilliance, variety of shades, amazing radiance, breathtaking play of colors - all this determines the inexhaustible popularity and variety of uses for precious stones.

Today, thanks to a lot of research, it became known that the deposits of precious stones are the bowels of the Earth. Gems are mined:

• in India - diamonds;
• in Sri Lanka - all precious stones except for diamonds;
• on the Baltic coast - amber;
• in Hungary - opal;
• in the Czech Republic - pyrope;
• in Ukraine - topaz and beryl;
• in Brazil - topaz, diamonds, amethyst and aquamarine;
• in Colombia, emeralds;
• on the island of Chile - lapis lazuli.

Mined gemstones are used in various spheres of life.

So, diamond is often used in jewelry. But here it is important to distinguish between such concepts as a diamond and a diamond. They are usually considered as separate minerals.

In reality, a diamond is a transparent cut diamond that has been subjected to jewelry processing.

Did you know that diamond is often called the king of stones?

- a precious stone, which is classified as a stone of the first order. Diamond is a mineral that has the unique property of glowing in the dark and also has unique optical properties.

In the modern world of jewelry, products made from diamonds, that is, diamonds that have been specially cut, have become widespread. But, even despite their popularity, only 20% of such diamonds are used in the jewelry industry.

It is another gemstone that is often used in the modern jewelry industry.

By nature, emerald is a green stone. Its color is due to the presence of chromium impurities in it. Scientists claim that typical emeralds contain:

• 0.14% chromium;
• 0.12% iron;
• 0.05% vanadium.

In addition to other diverse applications, emeralds are used in particular in the jewelry industry.

Often in the literature you can find references to the healing properties of emeralds. So, for example, there is an assumption that the emerald is endowed with the ability to drive away bad dreams, save from insomnia, strengthen the heart, expel evil spirits.

It is important! In order to protect its owner from the evil eye and other dangers, the emerald must be set in gold.

Meanwhile, emerald is also used in quantum electronics.

The name of such a precious stone as ruby came into our speech from the Latin language, which in the original language meant "red". An analogue of the name of the ruby, which was used in Ancient Rus', was the term "yahont".

The color of this gem is not the same. Its color varies from rich pink to red with an admixture of purple hues.

This is interesting! Ruby was highly valued by the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, who treated it more respectfully than a diamond.

To immediate modern areas of application of rubies relate:

1. Making expensive jewelry.
2. Instrumentation.
3. Laser technologies.

Scope of application of sapphires:

1. Alternative medicine.
2. Jewelry production.
3. Dentistry.
4. Industry.
5. Radioelectronics.

In general, the main common to all precious metals scope is the jewelry industry. Many gemstones are used as inlay elements in gold, silver, platinum and palladium jewelry. At the same time, an important aspect of such inlay is the compatibility of a particular gemstone with individual precious metals, which must be taken into account. Jewelry industry experts are aware of this compatibility.

Forms of investment

Our regular readers are of course aware of traditional and non-traditional forms of investing in precious metals, so in this section we will only cover forms of investing in precious stones.

Among the possible forms of investment in precious stones today are the following:

1. Investments in the extraction of precious stones.
2. Purchase of jewelry inlaid with precious stones.
3. Buying uncut gems.

Investments in mining of precious stones can be done by directing cash flows into shares of companies that already carry out such activities, or you can organize a mining activity yourself (through the formation of a company or the implementation of artisanal mining of precious stones).

Buying jewelry inlaid with precious stones, is the simplest way to invest in precious stones, which is a cumulative way that includes investments in precious metals and precious stones. This method is not characterized by a high level of profitability.

Buying uncut gems can be carried out by acquiring such stones from private dealers or from other entities.

In general, varieties of precious metals and stones offer a wide range of investment opportunities in these areas.

Stones (minerals) created by nature, which are distinguished by their special transparency, hardness, beautiful appearance and play of light on the edges, are called precious.

But this name can be considered conditional. Initially, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds and pearls were called precious stones. The rest of these minerals are called "semi-precious" (although it is wrong to divide them by price). Jewelers around the globe use the term "gem" to refer to meeting the criteria of beauty and having certain properties of the mineral.

Where are precious minerals used?

Beautiful stones have attracted the attention of man since ancient times. Minerals used to be thought to have miraculous properties. Allegedly, some of them helped from various diseases, others had a love spell, and others relieved of sadness and troubles.

But the stones not only brought aesthetic pleasure and "healed", but were also necessary for the development of ancient man. From hard stones that were tied to sticks, ancient people began their labor activity (they began to make stone axes, knives and other tools).

Now precious minerals are also called gems, they are used in the manufacture of jewelry (rings, earrings, bracelets, brooches, pendants); items of artistic value (ashtrays, vases); souvenir products; skillful crafts (caskets, vases, figurines). Gemstones have color, pattern, strength and hardness.

Gemstones are divided into stones for cutting and crafts. Cut stones are mineral crystals that may or may not be colorless; have a clean tone; are transparent or translucent; have good hardness, resistant to chemical attack, amenable to grinding and faceting. They are used to make jewelry.

Stones for crafts are mainly opaque minerals that have an interesting color (sometimes plain or variegated) with an unusual pattern. They can be sanded off easily. They are used in the creation of decorative products.

In addition to cutting and ornamental minerals, there are also jewelry and ornamental stones. They are used when jewelry, haberdashery and souvenir stone-cutting items are made in large quantities for mass demand. Then jewelry items are processed as beads, plates, cabochons (their surface is smooth, convex, polished and without facets).

Precious stones are needed not only in the manufacture of jewelry and beautiful handicrafts. They are also collected as collectibles, and are also used as financial assets and investments, so they become a sign of good wealth and prestige.

General classification of jewelry and ornamental stones

Group	Order	Name of stones
Jewelry (precious) stones	I II	Diamond, emerald, ruby, blue sapphire Alexandrite; orange, green and purple sapphire; noble black opal; noble jadeite Demantoid, spinel, noble white and fire opal, aquamarine, topaz, rhodolite, tourmaline Chrysolite, zircon; yellow, green and pink beryl, kunzite, turquoise, amethyst, pyrope, almandine, moon and sun stone, chrysoprase, citrine
Jewelry ornamental stones	I	Lapis lazuli, jadeite, jade, malachite, charoite, amber, rock crystal Agate, amazonite, hematite, rhodonite, opaque iridescent feldspars (belomorite, etc.), iridescent obsidian, epidote-garnet and vesuvian rodingides (jade)
ornamental stones		Jasper, marble onyx, obsidian, jet, petrified wood, larchite, patterned flint, graphic pegmatite, fluorite, aventurine quartzite, selenite, agalmatolite, colored marble, etc.

Classification of minerals by class

Type (class)

Name of stones

native elements Sulfides Halides Oxides and hydroxides Carbonates sulfates Phosphates silicates organic matter

Diamond, gold, sulfur, mercury Pyrite, sphalerite, galena, cinnabar, orpiment Fluorite, halite, ammonia Corundum, spinel, chrysoberyl, chalcedony, opals, quartz, magnetite, hematite, rutile Malachite, marble onyx, azurite, calcite, rhodochrosite, aragonite Gypsum, celestine, barite, scheelite Apatite, variscite, turquoise Olivine, garnets, zircon, topaz, beryl, tourmaline, jadeite, talc, micas, feldspars, lapis lazuli Amber, silicified wood, pearls

Gems. Impact on health and well-being. Ayurveda.

The miraculous power of precious stones.

Precious stones have accompanied humanity throughout its history. Gems served as amulets and talismans. According to ancient legend, precious stones protect their owner from hostile forces, bring health, happiness and good luck. All gems work differently. Some protect from evil, others preserve health, others serve as an antidote, cause the mercy of higher powers.

(Talistman- maintains and enhances the positive qualities of the owner, in resonance with natural rhythms Amulet- designed to protect the owner from unwanted influence, smooth out disharmony between external and internal rhythms)

Both in ancient legends and in the studies of modern science, there is indisputable evidence of evidence when precious stones influenced the health and fate of a person. .

Knowledge about the correct selection of precious jewelry at all times was used by rich and influential people. In fact, in ancient times, the person who had individually selected precious stones was considered to be “rich”, and this is not accidental. Precious stones carry strength and power, bestowing good luck on their owner.

The ruler of any state always had a crown set with precious stones. Ancient sources say that if the crown is made correctly, then it protects the ruler from all adversity.

On the other hand, no one else can wear it without harm to themselves.

Remember the famous Monomakh's hat - after the death of the owner, no one was able to put it on.

Ancient people not only used jewelry made of precious stones and metals, but also had the knowledge of how to use them correctly.

In the modern world, precious stones also have a place of honor. Thus, the bib of the Jewish high priest is decorated with four rows of precious stones. Precious stones sparkle on the tiaras and mitres of the Pope and bishops.

And of course there is a significant number of clientsjewelry houses with a worldwide reputation. Is it only a symbol of power, wealth and power, or is there something deeper and more essential behind it?

Sometimes, we experience surprise, looking at the play of light of precious stones. As if some force draws us to them. In ancient Indian scriptures it is said that precious stones are conductors of the energies of the planets.. For this reason, precious stones are able to positively influence the psyche and human health. There is a lot of historical evidence for this. So Ibn-al-Jassasa kept precious stones in a casket, and when it became difficult for him, he demanded a casket, poured them on his knees in order to drive away his anxiety. Ancient people believed that the planets have great power and through precious stones they act not only on health and the psyche, but also determine the course of events in our lives.
The Vedic culture has a very rich experience in the use of precious stones, with the help of which, if used correctly, we can enhance the influence of auspicious planets.
The main ways to determine the most suitable stones is a serious work on the study of the individual compatibility of stones and a person.

living minerals.

According to Vedic knowledge, life can be in the stone. Under certain circumstances the soul gets into a stone and can live there. Having a strong desire to live inactive, to enjoy inactivity, the soul falls into the thickness of the rock and begins to exist there for many millions of years.
That is, there is some kind of vital energy that makes the stone function.

The Vedas say that the soul can live in stone. When the soul wants to experience happiness by doing nothing, when it does not want to do any activity, the only form of life for it is stone.

The plant - and then acts: it germinates, reaches for the Sun, breathes, gives seeds. But when the soul wishes to simply live without doing anything, it receives the necessary type of body for this. Life in a stone is very long in time, it lasts hundreds of thousands of years, we cannot even imagine it!

The Vedas repeatedly say that such a life exists.
How is life manifested in stone?

Living stones look like cocoons on a saw cut similar to a tree saw cut.

The stone grows from within itself and divides by budding.

So, even without studying the Vedic literature, one can see the Vedic science - life in stone. It manifests itself according to the following signs: if you cut off a plant or the body of any living being, then we will see certain concentric circles. This indicates the presence of a skeleton, some kind of structure.

This means that the stone grows in accordance with its cycles. Many of the semi-precious stone nuggets also have circles or layers, or exist as crystals. It also speaks of a particular organization. Some stones give certain "buds" of rocks, that is, a new mineral can grow from the main crystal or cocoon. It's like a way to reproduce.

Now scientists say that the stones show signs of life. They even claim that the stone has its own breathing period, which in a certain way, periodically changes, and based on their research, scientists conclude that all signs of life are present on the face.
The Vedas also indicate that precious and semiprecious stones chipped from the cocoon also have biological power.

Just as a plucked plant retains the psychic power that gives us a change of mood after eating, stones from a broken cocoon of precious rock also retain their psychic power for a long time. And this power, the psychic energy of the stone, heals much more than any chemical preparations.

Plants are also able to act on the human psyche. Even ground herbs retain this power for the time being.

Until the grass begins to deteriorate, its mental impact on a person remains pronounced.

Gems and planetary energies.

Stones have a great healing power of impact on the body. This is due to the fact that they have a pronounced contact with the nine planets of the celestial sphere most pronouncedly affecting the psyche and human health. We list these planets: Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Rahu (ascending lunar node in Western astrology), Ketu (descending lunar node in Western astrology).
These planets affect not only our health, but also the psyche and even the course of events. They also affect plants, animals and, as already mentioned, precious stones. In other words, these planets affect all life. In precious stones, while they are still in the rock, there is also life.

Precious stones, being filled with the energy of a planet, influence all living things with this energy. The same can be said about plants. For example, the Sun fills plants with fiery power, which is then expressed in pungent, bitter and astringent tastes. From the Sun, a person receives immunity, the fire of digestion, a feeling of joy, a desire to act. Ruby, garnet, red tourmaline also feed on the power of the Sun.

An observant person may notice that the aforementioned tastes produced by solar energy in plants greatly increase digestion. Ruby and pomegranate, put on a person, also act in a similar way - they increase the fire of digestion, immunity and cheerfulness. We see that the Sun acts on us not only directly, through its light, but also through plants and stones filled with solar power.

Precious stones, filled with the energy of any planet for tens of thousands of years, then themselves influence all living things around. In order for this influence to be truly beneficial, one must learn how to use it correctly. Since ancient times, it has been noted that from staying in the mountains, where there are deposits of gems, some people quickly improve their health and mental state, while others get worse.

How is the healing effect of precious stones related to the influence of the planets? Any pure stone of a certain color, as a rule, draws strength from only one planet. For example, the beneficial effect of red rubies, garnets, red tourmalines, sunstone depends on the fiery power of the Sun, which, when a gemstone touches a person, increases the fire of digestion, strengthens immunity, restores blood functions, improves bone tissue structure and metabolism. The impact on the psyche is manifested by a feeling of joy, self-confidence, a desire to actively live and act.

Just as the ruby ​​is connected to the Sun, nourished by its power, in the same way all gems are connected to one of these 9 planets. Pearl and moonstone are associated with the Moon, emerald with Mercury, diamond and white topaz with Venus, yellow sapphire and yellow topaz with Jupiter, blue sapphire and amethyst with Saturn, red and pink coral with Mars. Their influence on our lives is studied by Vedic astrology.

1. High-quality rubies, red tourmaline are used to influence the Sun.
2. High quality pearls, moonstone, labrador, rambo, black star are used to influence the moon.
3. To influence Mars - high quality corals.
4. To influence Mercury - high-quality emeralds, green tourmaline.
5. To influence Jupiter - high quality yellow sapphires.
6. To influence Venus - high-quality white sapphires.
7. To influence Saturn - high-quality blue sapphires, blue-green alexandrite, black tourmaline.
8. To influence Rahu - high quality gametes.
9. To influence Ketu - high quality cat's eye.

POWER OF INFLUENCE OF PRECIOUS STONES: HEALING ASPECT.

The influence of ruby ​​on a person.

Amazing and radiant, bright red and other shades of rubies (corundum) have numerous virtues. Rubies come in a variety of colors. Some of them resemble the color of blood, while others resemble the color of pomegranate seeds. Some rubies are red like cinnabar, while others are yellowish red like saffron or shellac. Quality rubies should be evenly colored, and in the light a soft glow should come from their core. Illuminated by the rays of the sun, these crystal specimens emit a radiance of wonderful color and sparkle, reflecting light in all directions.
The beneficial effect of rubies, red sapphires and tourmalines is determined by the fiery power of the Sun. Accumulating in these precious stones, this force, in contact with the human body, enhances the fire of digestion, increases immunity, and improves metabolism.

Its misuse can lead to insomnia. In the case of proper selection, wearing it with reduced digestion, polyarthritis, rheumatism, decreased immunity, diseases of the skeletal system and teeth gives
great results. Ruby also affects the human psyche. It increases responsibility, composure, concentration, efficiency, influence and power of a person.

The sun, acting through these stones, fills the mind of a person with a sense of joy, self-confidence, a desire to live and act. Ruby is one of the most expensive gemstones, its value can be equated to diamond.

In India and China, the ruby ​​has been used for thousands of years to improve health and increase happiness. Also, the power attributed to the ruby ​​in the East and in ancient Europe lies in its ability to predict danger. It foretells danger by showing a loss of color and brilliance.
The ruby ​​is commonly used in Eastern astrology to strengthen the heart, improve digestion, circulation, restore body fire and increase energy. Ruby strengthens the will, gives independence, intuition and increases the mental strength of a person. For this reason, this gem is called the “gem of kings”

Pearl (moonstone).

Associated with the planet Moon and increases emotional stability, friendliness, contentment. It should not be worn alone with excess weight, disorders of the lymphatic system, metabolic diseases. Moonstone and pearls are used to calm the mind and give strength to the reproductive system. These stones are worn on the fingers in a silver frame (more often on the little finger and ring finger). It is also favorable to wear them as a medallion. But it must be taken into account that it is difficult for a person himself to understand where and how to wear a precious stone, this requires the help of a specialist. In addition to all that has been said, we use these stones in the traditional ancient oriental scheme of the navaratna talisman.
Wearing stones associated with the moon is also used to treat memory impairment, fatigue. Moonstone has a particularly strong effect on women. Therefore, it is often used to treat menopause, female infertility.

Pearls and moonstone improve metabolism in the body, restore hormonal functions, improve sleep, normalize mental tone and blood pressure, bring peace, tranquility and relaxation.

Pearls should be without color inclusions, and the moonstone should be clean and dull-transparent.

Red (pink) coral.

This stone is associated with the planet Mars. Therefore, wearing it stimulates courage, energy, penetration and with

ability to win over opponents. Bright red corals are rarely suitable for Europeans. It is these corals that have a very hot nature. They are more suitable for people in very sunny climates. Therefore, we use pink corals more in our practice. But even they should not be used for increased sexuality and fever. However, wearing corals selected by a competent specialist, even in these cases, is absolutely harmless. Coral is extremely useful for immune disorders, reduced efficiency, physical and mental weakness, decreased digestion, joint diseases, anemia.

Coral restores appetite and gastric digestion, gives strength to the voice, fills the liver with strength, improves the functioning of the bronchi, kidneys, uterus, male genital organs, gives a person’s character determination, the ability to withstand difficulties.

It endows a person with an unyielding will, stimulates courage, energy, penetration and the ability to win.

Emerald.

Its influence is associated with the planet Mercury and therefore has an impact on intelligence, good memory. Emerald is able to improve a person's ability to communicate more vividly and confidently, accelerates logical thinking. Emerald has a positive effect on heart rhythm, bile production, hormonal functions of the pancreas and thyroid gland, improves metabolism, improves memory, speech, and activates thinking processes.

This stone is very favorable for those who are engaged in business, it protects when concluding trade transactions, conducting financial transactions.

Like coral, bright intense green stones are rarely suitable for Europeans and are more suitable for people living in hot climates. For this reason, in our practice, we often use soft emeralds, pastel colors, light green.

Yellow sapphire.

This stone interacts with the planet Jupiter. According to ancient writings, the correct wearing of this stone increases a person’s goodwill, complaisance, mental activity and endurance, gives the character optimism and determination, wisdom, compassion and enthusiasm.

Yellow sapphire enhances immunity, improves metabolism in the liver and pancreas, brain, normalizes fat metabolism, heals the lymphatic system, has a beneficial effect on the nervous system and, in particular, on the brain. Wearing this stone brings good luck and prosperity.

Diamond (white sapphire).

This stone is associated with the influence of the planet Venus. It increases attractiveness, self-control, eliminates emotional vulnerability, brings composure and calmness. It gives a person endurance, the ability to be influential and successful. Also, a diamond has a good effect on creativity, gives a person grace and charm. It, like all other gems, has a great effect on health. Diamond and white topaz have a strong effect on the metabolism, kidneys, lymphatic system, genitals in women. They eliminate emotional vulnerability, improve hormonal functions and the condition of the skin, joints and spine, bring composure and calmness.

Blue sapphire.

This stone is associated in its influence with the planet Saturn. It protects against accidents and accidents. Increases efficiency, activity of the nervous system, calmness, practicality, and endurance. Blue sapphire restores intestinal activity, vascular metabolism, heals joints and spine, improves the activity of the nervous system, positively affects the functioning of the brain, gall bladder, bladder, kidneys, and metabolism. This stone must be chosen with particular care.

Gametes.

Associated with the planet Rahu, which in Western astrology is called the North Node. It has a pronounced protective effect. Gamete calms the psyche, increases warmth and responsiveness in character, helps to get rid of the oppressive influence of people around. Protects from the bad influence of a computer, TV, mobile phone, gives clarity of mind and high spirits. Gamete has a beneficial effect on digestion, hormonal functions, the activity of the cardiovascular system, and blood purity. Gamete heals immunity, skin diseases, hormonal functions, metabolism, hematopoietic functions, increases warmth and responsiveness in character.

This stone is associated with the influence of the planet Ketu. In Western astrology this planet is called the South Node. The cat's eye makes a person fearless, increases calmness, improves sleep (counters the bad influence on the psyche during sleep).

It protects from any mental influences on a person and therefore is a talisman. The cat's eye effectively treats the nervous system, hormonal functions, mineral metabolism in the body, circulatory disorders, skin diseases, cardiovascular pathology, mental illness, relieves excessive mental stress, eliminates fears. It helps to cope with bad habits, strengthens willpower and mental stamina, gives clarity of consciousness and general popularity in society.

* * *
Imagine how strong the healing effect will be if the gems are individually selected and used at the same time! The scheme for selecting precious stones has existed since ancient times and is called the navaratna talisman.

The effect of stones is much more effective and stable than herbal treatment. This is due to the fact that the duration of the decay of the stone is hundreds of years. Therefore, the stone on the body can be worn for life. A person is unlikely to be able to noticeably deplete the psychic energy of a stone in his short (compared to the life of a stone) life. In decades to come, it will act as strongly as it does now.
So, semi-precious stones have biological power, affecting our mind. This is a special form of life, in which the soul has a body not in the form of a person, animal or plant, but in the form of a frozen stone. What consciousness - such and a body. The stones in which life develops have their own prana and energy of the subtle body or character. When the stone cocoon is destroyed, the precious rock does not lose its prana and psychic power. When prana and the nature of the stone act on a person through certain zones, his health improves.

There are artificial or artificially grown stones that are used everywhere today. They also affect the body through electromagnetic fields. However, treatment with them is much lower than with the use of natural stones. With the help of artificially grown stones, you can get some vigor, increase efficiency. However, they cannot treat mental illness or, for example, allergies, skin diseases. It is important to understand whether the stones are really healing minerals. For most people, this is impossible to do on their own. Also, in addition to artificially grown minerals, there are simply fakes made of plastic or just empty rock, which only affects the movement of prana in the body. For example, shungite only affects prana, it has no biological power.

How to choose the right stones for yourself? You can seek help from an Ayurvedic astrologer, who, according to the horoscope, finds those planets that have a devastating effect on health, and with the help of the selection of stones tries to neutralize their bad influence. On the other hand, stones are also selected that enhance the influence of those planets that are favorable. Usually, after a painstaking selection of stones, a person immediately begins to feel their positive impact on the psyche and health. In other words, these stones become more precious than you can imagine, as they consistently help maintain health for many years.

Introductionprr Mineralogy and gemology …...…...…………………............. The nature of gems ............ Properties of gems ........................................ Chemical composition ... Physical Properties ................................................. Optical properties ................................................. Origin of gems .............................. Use of gems .............................. Diamonds clear water stone .................................................. The use of diamonds ............................................ History of the stone ........................................................... famous diamonds ................................................... Conclusion.................................................................................. Application................................................................................

Introduction

The earth, with its dense green forests, endless fields, blue seas, high mountains, is undoubtedly beautiful. But we must also not forget about the world inaccessible to the eye, about the bowels of the Earth, about the alluring and complex world of minerals. Back in the 4th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist Aristotle divided nature into three kingdoms. The first is the animal kingdom, the second is the plant kingdom, and the third is the mineral kingdom. Aristotle attributed to the latter all inanimate nature, that is, everything that is not an animal or plant 1 . But is it? If you take a piece of any rock, you will notice that it consists of many grains. These are minerals. In some rocks they are immediately visible, in others they are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. Now science has about 4,000 different minerals.

A mineral is a natural chemical compound with a specific crystalline structure, formed during natural geological processes. The science that studies minerals is called mineralogy. The science that studies rocks is petrography. The opinion of many people that all precious jewelry stones are minerals is wrong. Minerals, in the strict sense of the word, are not non-crystalline formations such as amber (Ex. No. 5), pearls (Ex. No. 6) or volcanic glasses. Minerals also do not include noble organogenic products: pearls, coral, jet, etc. Finally, gemstones obtained synthetically in laboratories and factories are not minerals.

So what is a gem? What are the qualities of a mineral called a precious stone?

The purpose of my work – to answer these questions and evaluate the precious stone in terms of mineralogy and gemology.

Hence the tasks :

Find out the physical properties and chemical composition of gemstones

Find out the origin of gems

Define a gem

Make a list of gems

Tell us more about one of the representatives of precious stones

The world scientific community has now found and described about 4000 minerals, most of which (about 85%) are waiting for their application. This work is far from complete. Scientists discover more and more new types of minerals, obtain additional information about the unique properties that can be successfully applied in the creation of new technology, electronics, etc. There are more than several hundred drugs containing minerals or consisting of mineral substances, many of which have been used as such since ancient times. However, the potential possibilities of the properties of minerals are far from being exhausted. Therefore, I consider it necessary to study the characteristics of minerals in order to learn how to use them correctly.

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Mineralogyand gemology 1

Mineralogy- the science of minerals - natural chemical compounds.

Mineralogy studies the composition, properties, structures, and conditions for the formation of minerals. Mineralogy is one of the oldest geological sciences. The first descriptions of minerals appeared among the ancient Greek philosophers. Mining contributed to the further development of mineralogy. At present, genetic and experimental mineralogy are intensively developing.

The achievements of physics, chemistry and other natural sciences are actively used in mineralogy. Thus, the mineralogical study of meteorites and samples from other planets made it possible to learn a lot about the history of the Solar System and the processes of planet formation.

Within the framework of mineralogy, crystallography, petrography, the study of minerals, geochemistry and crystal chemistry were formed and then separated into independent sciences.

Gemology(from Latin gemma - gem, precious stone, and Greek logos - science) - the science of gems (precious and ornamental stones).

Gemology is a collection of information about precious and ornamental stones, mainly about the physical properties, chemical composition, decorative and artistic merits of minerals and mineral aggregates used in jewelry and stone-cutting production. He studies the geology of deposits, as well as the technology of processing precious and ornamental stones. An important applied purpose of gemology is to determine the mineral type of a gemstone and its origin (often carried out according to a faceted sample, a noticeable impact on which is unacceptable), as well as to establish the differences between natural gemstones and their synthetic counterparts and imitations. In addition, gemology includes the development of methods for refining precious and ornamental stones.

Gemmology is closely related to mineralogy, petrography and crystallography, in addition to the methods of these sciences, it uses the methods of physics, chemistry, petrology, geology and biology. The close connection with mineralogy is determined by the fact that the vast majority of precious and ornamental stones are minerals. In 1902, the French chemist M. A. Verneuil first obtained and began to supply synthetic rubies to the world market, and a little later, synthetic sapphires and synthetic spinel. The appearance of a large number of synthetic stones did not reduce, but, on the contrary, increased the value and cost of natural natural gems.

The main areas of gemology:

diagnostic

descriptive

aesthetic

genetic

applied and technical and economic

experimental

regional

Promising areas of gemological research:

accumulation of diagnostic data on jewelry stones to increase the reliability of their identification by express non-destructive methods

study of the properties of synthetic stones and criteria for their difference from natural analogues

study of modern methods of refining and search for methods for recognizing traces of refining

study of the optical properties of diamonds and optimization of diamond cutting

study of the color of precious stones using computer simulation

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The nature of gems

Most gemstones are minerals, i.e. homogeneous natural chemical compounds having a certain composition and crystal structure, on which the shape of crystals and their properties depend. Among almost 4,000 mineral species, only about 100 belong to precious stones. Natural volcanic glasses (for example, obsidian) related to rocks are used as jewelry and ornamental stones. Four gemstones - pearl, coral, amber and jet 1 - are of organic origin, they are formed by living organisms - plants or animals. Finally, jewelry stones can be artificial, man-made. The division of jewelry stones into precious and semi-precious is now outdated and out of use. In accordance with the crystal structure and chemical composition, gemstones are grouped into several families. Such a property of minerals as color often depends on impurities of chromophore elements (Cr, Fe, Ti, V, Mn, etc.), therefore, even a slight change in the chemical composition leads to the appearance of different colors in minerals of the same type. For example, both ruby ​​(Ex. No. 3) and sapphire are classified as varieties of corundum, which are identical in all properties except color. The ruby ​​is deep red, and the classic sapphire is cornflower blue. Today, sapphires, in addition to blue, include transparent corundum of any color other than red. A very extensive group of quartz, including transparent crystalline varieties (rock crystal, amethyst, citrine 2 (Ex. No. 7), pink and smoky quartz) and fine-crystalline (chalcedony, carnelian, chrysoprase, agate and onyx), as well as such extraordinary varieties of quartz with inclusions of foreign minerals (aventurine, tiger's eye, hairy, etc.) 3 Jewelry stones are classified according to the chemical composition, which, in combination with the crystal structure, determines their properties. With a few exceptions, all gemstones are crystalline substances in which atoms form a regular crystal lattice. Mineral crystals are often so individual and distinct that they can be quickly identified with a basic knowledge of crystallography. In non-crystalline, or amorphous, jewelry stones, such as, for example, amber or jet, the atoms of the elements that compose them are arranged randomly. Jewelry stones are diagnosed by color, crystal shape, density, hardness, optical and other physical properties and chemical composition. To facilitate diagnosis and reduce time, reference books containing lists of jewelry stones with a description of their properties and visual tables are used. Some properties, such as color, are easily established, while others require special physical instruments that measure the optical characteristics of stones. The properties of some jewelry stones are most clearly manifested only after they are cut (Ex. No. 11). 1

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1. Properties of gems

Chemical composition. Most gemstones are minerals, which are classified mainly according to their chemical elements or their compounds, for example, diamond consists of one element - carbon, and tourmaline is a complex combination of many elements. The main chemical element of precious stones is oxygen, followed by silicon, aluminum and calcium. The most numerous group is formed by silicates, including topaz, zircon 1 , garnet, beryl, feldspars, tourmaline 2 , jade 3 , olivine 4 (chrysolite) and many other minerals. Some gemstones, such as corundum and quartz, are simple oxides; spinel and chrysoberyl are complex oxides. Pyrite 5 refers to sulfides, turquoise - to phosphates, fluorite - to halides, smithsonite 6 , calcite and aragonite 7 - to carbonates. Pearls and coral are also composed mainly of carbonates; jet and amber are composed of hydrocarbons or resins (Ex. No. 8). The color of many gemstones is due to chemical impurities (Ex. No. 12) - small amounts of certain chromophore metals that are not reflected in chemical formulas, but nevertheless determine the value and beauty of gemstones to a greater extent than other factors. Impurity elements that color minerals are best determined by optical methods. Chemical methods are rarely used to test cut gemstones, they are used only for the diagnosis of rough stones and their fragments. A drop of hydrochloric acid, from which natural carbonate boils and hisses, makes it possible to recognize ordinary calcite, sold under the trade name "Mexican onyx". Turquoise can be identified by wetting the lower surface of the stone with hydrochloric acid: if the acid leaves a dull spot that turns bright blue when ammonia is added, then the specimen being tested is real turquoise, not an imitation. The content of chemical elements in precious stones of the same group may vary, as a result of which there are often gradual transitions between them without changing the crystal structure. For example, individual mineral species of the garnet group are connected by mutual transitions. The difference in the content and nature of the agent responsible for coloring determines the assignment of a precious stone to one or another of its varieties. For example, a ruby ​​can gradually turn into a pink sapphire. Some gemstones, such as noble corundum and spinel, gem topaz and chrysolite, are associated with their non-precious varieties by transitions. With the complete replacement of the original natural substance with a newly formed one, pseudomorphosis occurs and a complete change in composition occurs while maintaining the original external form. A striking example of pseudomorphosis is a petrified tree, in which chalcedony (a kind of quartz) or opal replaces wood with the preservation of its fibrous structure and even growth rings. Physical properties due to the crystal structure and chemical composition of gemstones. The most important are the optical properties of gemstones. Feeling. Some minerals create a certain "feel" when touched. For example, a very soft talc aggregate - steatite (soapstone) seems to be soapy to the touch, the surface of polished topaz is slippery. Density. Differences in the density of precious stones are due to different atomic masses of the elements that compose them, the size of particles (atoms, ions) and different density of their packing. For example, zircon is heavier than an equal-sized diamond, i.e. has a higher density. One of the heaviest jewelry minerals is tin oxide cassiterite (7.0–6.8), and the lightest is amber (1.05–1.09). The density of minerals is determined by weighing them first in air and then in water; the mass in air divided by the mass loss in water is the density. standard unit masses The metric carat is used in the gemstone market. Initially, it corresponded to the standard weight of the carob seed (200 mg), common in the Mediterranean. The carat is subdivided into 100 shares. The mass of more valuable jewelry stones in commercial transactions is determined in carats, less valuable - in grams, pennyweight (1 pennyweight = 24 grains = 1.5552 g) and ounces (28.3 g). Some cut stones are graded by size, measured in millimetres. Hardness determined by the resistance of the mineral to scratching. The harder the gemstone, the higher the quality of its polishing and the more beautiful and durable it is. In hard stones, the electronic bonds between atoms are stronger. Hardness is a very constant and reliable measure widely used to diagnose minerals (but not always applicable to gemstones as their facets can be damaged by scratching). Usually, the hardness of gemstones and other minerals is measured on the Mohs scale. 1 . The hardness of diamond, the hardest of all substances, is rated at 10 points. Each mineral on this scale scratches the previous mineral and is in turn scratched by the next. Quartz, with a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale, serves as the boundary between hard and soft gemstones. Since sand and airborne dust particles are predominantly composed of quartz, the surface of found stones with a lower hardness, as well as ancient processed stones with a hardness less than that, is usually scratched and rubbed. Strength. Unlike hardness, the toughness of a mineral is determined by its fracture resistance. The combination of hardness and toughness determines its strength, which depends on the adhesion forces, i.e. mutual electrical attraction of ions in the crystal structure of a gemstone. Some relatively hard stones (such as zircon) are difficult to scratch but are very brittle and crack or crumble easily. Others, such as jade, which is no harder than quartz, are very strong and very difficult to split or cut due to their high viscosity. The durability of a stone is determined by its strength and resistance to chemical attack. Cleavage. The ability of a mineral to split or split along one or more directions corresponding to the weakest interatomic bonds in the structure is called cleavage. There are several degrees of perfection of cleavage according to the nature of its manifestation in a crystal. For example, diamond and fluorite have perfect octahedral cleavage. This means that the cleavage occurs parallel to the faces of the octahedron with the formation of octahedral junctions bounded by smooth, even planes. The surface of a split that did not occur along cleavage (i.e., not in accordance with the crystal structure of the stone) is called a fracture. This term is used to describe the cleavage surface of all amorphous gemstones, although crystalline minerals can also be characterized by a specific fracture in addition to indicating cleavage. Depending on the appearance of the fracture surface, several types of fracture are distinguished: conchoidal, stepped, uneven, splintery, hooked, etc. Electrification and polarity. Some gemstones exhibit electrical polarity. It is revealed by their ability to attract or repel light objects (such as pieces of paper) after these stones are heated by friction or sunlight. Already in 600 BC. it has been noticed that amber, if rubbed vigorously, begins to attract fine fibers of wool. Topaz and some other gemstones also exhibit this property when polished. Tourmaline, when compressed or heated, acquires positive or negative charges that occur simultaneously at opposite ends of its crystals. This phenomenon is called the direct piezoelectric effect. 1 The reverse piezoelectric effect is the change in the volume of a crystal under the influence of an electric field. Crystals of some minerals, such as tourmaline and quartz, are so sensitive to changes in electrical voltage that in an electric field they begin to vibrate at a high and constant frequency. This is the basis for their use in radio electronics and quartz watches. Optical properties. 2 Color. The study of the optical properties of gems is one of the most important aspects of gemology, since the effect of light on a gem determines its beauty. Of all the optical properties, color is perhaps the most important, especially for opaque stones, and the attractiveness of transparent stones depends on their "play", color and brilliance. Color is an important diagnostic feature that allows you to distinguish gemstones. However, sometimes two completely different minerals have the same color. Before the advent of the science of gemology, gemstones were recognized only by color - all red stones were considered carbuncles or rubies, and green ones were usually attributed to emeralds, regardless of their origin and composition. Opaque minerals can often be distinguished by the color of the line, i.e. the trace they leave when a stone is passed over an unglazed porcelain plate (biscuit). For example, hematite leaves a bright reddish-brown (cherry) streak, while pyrite leaves black with a greenish or brown tint. The nature of the color of the minerals has not been completely elucidated. It is known that in some cases the color is due to the chemical composition of the gem or impurities of some chemical elements-chromophores (Cr, Fe, Mn, V, Ti, etc.). In the latter case, the mechanism for the appearance of a particular color is not always clear, since the same chemical element colors different gemstones in different colors. For example, an admixture of chromium makes a ruby ​​red and an emerald green. The color is also affected by the violation (defects) of the atomic structure of the mineral under the influence of radioactive irradiation. Shine due to the reflection of light from the surface of the mineral. The proportion of reflected light depends on the nature of the stone and on the direction of incidence of the light. If the light falls perpendicularly, only a small part of it is reflected; at small angles of incidence, a much larger fraction of the light is reflected. Hard, well-polished gemstones have a brighter luster than soft ones. Untreated stones have a weaker luster. Surface wetting or polishing enhances the brilliance of the stone and brings out its true color by reflecting more light. In mineralogy and gemology, the following types of brilliance are distinguished: diamond (for diamond, zircon, sphalerite), diamond-like (weaker than diamond, but stronger than glass - for corundum), glass (for beryl, topaz (Ex. No. 4), garnets and many other jewelry stones), wax (for turquoise), silky (for minerals with a fibrous structure, for example, for selenite), mother-of-pearl (for pearl), metallic (for opaque jewelry stones of a metallic appearance, for example, pyrite and hematite), resinous (for amber), fatty (for steatite). Light refraction. The beam entering the inside of a transparent mineral is refracted, since the speed of its propagation becomes less than in air, and it decreases the more, the greater the optical density of the stone. The refractive index of a mineral (the degree of deviation of a light beam from a perpendicular direction) is measured using a refractometer 1 and is mathematically expressed by the ratio of the speeds of light propagation in the mineral and in the void. Diamond has a very high refractive index. The light coming out of the stone is also refracted as it leaves the optically denser medium and re-enters the air. The value of the refractive index is a specific feature of each mineral (including precious stone) and contributes to its reliable diagnosis. When white light enters a precious stone, not only is it refracted, but it is also decomposed into different colors of the spectrum, since each of the colored rays that make up white light (red, orange, blue, green, etc.) is refracted in different ways and at the output of the crystal, the white beam “splits” into all the colors of the rainbow. This phenomenon is called the "play" of the stone, "fire" or dispersion. The dispersion value of a diamond is approximately the same as that of a demantoid or titanite, but its “fire” seems much brighter, since the “play” is more noticeable in colorless stones. One turn of the diamond causes a whole sheaf of rainbow sparks. All transparent minerals (with the exception of cubic and amorphous minerals) separate light into two differently deviating beams. This phenomenon is called double refraction, or birefringence. Dichroism. The effect of two-color (dichroism) is observed in a number of jewelry stones, characterized by the presence of double refraction when their orientation relative to the line of sight changes. The change in color becomes noticeable if you turn the crystal or look at it either through the upper or through the side faces. For some gemstones, dichroism testing is one of the most demonstrative diagnostic methods. For example, a ruby ​​immediately stands out among other red stones by the presence of two distinct shades of red. Polarization. Gemstone crystals polarize transmitted light, causing its waves to oscillate in a direction perpendicular to the path of the light beam. Part of the light, reflected from the polished surface of the stone, is polarized depending on the angle of incidence. In stones with birefringence, light is completely polarized (with the exception of rays propagating along optical axes, i.e., directions in the crystal in which there is no birefringence). Each of the two rays resulting from birefringence travels in different directions, and the light waves of these rays oscillate almost mutually perpendicular. Each direction of oscillation is characterized by a different absorption of color, which causes dichroism. Knowledge of the nature of the polarization of light in a mineral is necessary for its qualified cutting, which reveals a winning color. Asterism. The starry effect that only a few gemstones have is called asterism. It is due to the reflection (diffraction) of light from inclusions in the stone, oriented along certain crystallographic directions. The best examples are star sapphire and star ruby. In fibrous minerals, such as the cat's eye, there is a strip of light that changes its position when the stone is turned (iridescence). The play of light in opal or the shining peacock colors of labradorite are explained by the interference of light, i.e. mixing of light rays when they are reflected from layers of regularly laid silica balls (opal) or from the thinnest lamellar crystalline ingrowths (labradorite, moonstone). Luminescence observed in a number of precious stones: under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, they begin to glow, and in a completely different color than in daylight. If the glow occurs only during the time that the gemstone is illuminated by ultraviolet rays, this phenomenon is called fluorescence; if it continues to glow for some time after the cessation of exposure to ultraviolet radiation - phosphorescence. The vast majority of diamonds fluoresce. For example, diamonds from South Africa typically have a sky blue glow. The fluorescence of pearls depends on the chemical composition of the water in which they grew. Amber (usually in bluish-white tones) and many opals fluoresce distinctly. A unique feature of jade is that, immediately after processing, it fluoresces much brighter than older products. Ruby (especially from Myanmar and Sri Lanka) and some other gemstones fluoresce in normal sunlight. This property greatly enhances the attractiveness of the ruby ​​and distinguishes it from other red stones. 1

1. Origin of gems

There are many ways in which gemstones are formed in nature. Some of them arose as a result of powerful mountain-building processes, including tectonic movements, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Others are products of sedimentation from mineral spring waters or the slow burial of ancient forests. Almost all gems are associated with certain rocks of the earth's crust, divided into three main types: igneous (igneous), sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the bowels of the Earth or on its surface from lava erupted through cracks or volcanic vents. In the process of slow cooling and solidification of magma, as the concentration of substances dissolved in the melt increases, mineral crystals begin to grow. If these processes take place at great depths, the crystals can reach significant sizes, if on the surface, then they are usually small, since the lava solidifies very quickly. Large regular-shaped crystals grow in cavities and open cracks, where they have enough free space for growth. The part of the magma that solidifies last and is enriched in vapors and gases forms pegmatites. 1 . The structure of pegmatites is extremely uneven, often they contain giant crystals weighing several tons and tens of meters long. Pegmatite veins are one of the most important types of gemstone deposits and the main primary source of moonstone, pink and smoky quartz, beryl and spodumene (kunzite). Pegmatites with precious stones are associated with acidic igneous rocks rich in silica. Non-silica minerals such as diamond, ruby, sapphire and spinel crystallize in mafic and ultramafic rocks. All rocks are affected by erosion agents (water, wind and ice). Weathering products are transported in the form of debris, sand and silt. This clastic material is deposited in the form of beds or sheets. Over the course of geologic history, sediments become compacted and cemented into sedimentary rocks. Their main types are sandstones, shales, limestones and conglomerates. Voids in sedimentary rocks can serve as treasure troves of rock crystal, decorative calcite, and fluorite. Under the influence of high temperature, pressure or chemical reactions, both igneous and sedimentary rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks, which, in turn, are weathered and form sedimentary rocks again. Jade, lapis lazuli and garnet are associated with metamorphic rocks. The extraction of precious stones from bedrock is carried out using underground mine workings or open pits. Stones freed from the parent rock by erosion processes and then carried and redeposited by water flows form alluvial deposits, which are mined by hand washing or dredging. Such deposits are usually profitable in exploitation. For example, the pebble placers of Sri Lanka are famous for their sapphires, rubies and spinels. Coastal-ocean placers on the western coast of Africa (in Namibia) are very rich in diamonds, and many tons of sand are washed to extract them. On the Baltic coast, amber is washed by the surf. In the placers there are hollow nodules, the walls of which are composed of dense chalcedony and lined with crystals from the inside. Such formations, called geodes, are truly natural boxes with surprises, because from the outside the geode looks like an ordinary boulder and is unremarkable. Only if you split the geode, you can see the beautiful crystals of precious stones hiding in it. Magnificent specimens of amethysts have been found in geodes. Such nodules, usually 10–15 cm in diameter, are formed most often in limestones, less often in shales or clayey sediments. During weathering, they are released from the parent rock and enter the placers. Opal, chalcedony and agate are often formed in voids - gas bubbles of basalt and andesitic lavas; The best Australian opals are associated with weathering crusts. Turquoise is found in areas with a dry hot climate and is formed near the surface with the participation of seeping solutions, deposited in fractured rocks. Olivine is so sensitive to weathering that it occurs unchanged only in fresh, unweathered rocks. Two precious stones were found in meteorites - diamond and olivine-chrysolite. Coral growth requires sea water with a constant temperature. They develop at depths of no more than 20 m. Petrified wood is formed when completely buried trees are gradually saturated with mineral solutions over thousands of years and their primary plant fibers are replaced by mineral matter. Amber is the resin of ancient coniferous trees; often it contains inclusions of perfectly preserved insects. Jet, close in composition and origin to ordinary coal, differs from it in a denser composition. 1

1. Use of gems

In connection with the development of precision instrumentation and special industries (radio industry, etc.), the use of precious stones has changed dramatically. The use of natural stone for jewelry and decorative and artistic purposes has fallen sharply. The technique of making synthetic stone (ruby, sapphire, spinel) and all kinds of cheap fakes and imitations has developed. Most of the precious stones go for technical purposes, where their consumption is increasing. Due to its high hardness, diamond is widely used in drilling technology, for cutting and grinding hard materials, etc. Ruby and sapphires, mostly synthetic, are used in watchmaking and for bearings in precision movements. Transparent quartz, tourmaline are widely used for special optical instruments, as well as in the radio industry. Agate, chalcedony and their varieties are used in large quantities for the manufacture of parts for precision scales and measuring instruments, as well as chemical mortars, thrust bearings, etc. The new technology of precision engineering instruments, the optical, watch and radio-electronic industries have presented a demand for hard precious stones (ruby, sapphire, corundum, tourmaline, topaz, quartz, fluorite, etc.). Precious and ornamental stones from ancient times were used along with shells, bone, horn, wood for beads, pendants, bracelets, amulets. Precious and ornamental stones are also widely used in art as a material for small plastics and products such as jewelry, caskets, candlesticks, pendants, bracelets, necklaces, ashtrays, table sets, figurines, figurines, lining of vases and caskets (mainly malachite), making knife handles, spoons, forks. In jewelry, precious and semi-precious stones often acquire an independent artistic value, acting as their main part.

1. Diamonds 1

Of all gemstones, diamond has the simplest chemical composition - it is simply crystalline carbon C (Ex. Nos. 1 and 2). Carbon is dimorphic, its other crystalline variety is graphite. Truly, nature has surpassed itself by creating from the same element substances with such different and opposite properties as hard, brilliant and transparent diamond and soft, easily soiled and opaque graphite. Each of these substances has its own advantages. Diamond, in addition to being superior in quality to all other gemstones, is used in industry as a cutting and abrasive material. Graphite is used to make pencils, to clean stoves, and mixed with clay to make refractory crucibles. In addition, it is invaluable as a lubricant, especially when working under heavy load. Both minerals exist in nature, showing no discernible tendency to change from one to the other. Indeed, in order for a diamond crystal to turn black when heated without access to oxygen, i.e., in order for it to partially turn into graphite, a very high temperature (at least 1500 °) is necessary. (When heated in an oxygen atmosphere, or even in air, diamond oxidizes to CO or CO, at temperatures around 800°C.) clear water stone . Impurities are often present in diamond, mainly iron oxide and silica with traces of lime and magnesia, but the amount of impurities usually does not exceed 5%. It is the admixture of iron oxide that causes the yellowish tint that is so characteristic of impure water diamonds. Absolutely transparent and flawless diamonds are said to be "pure". Such diamonds, when they do not have any color tint, except perhaps bluish, are most highly valued. Stones with a faint yellowish tinge are called "impure water" stones and are valued much lower. Attempts have sometimes been made to improve impure water stones by covering their basal facets with a blue film. This film can usually be removed by washing the stone in benzene, methanol, or even hot water, but if these methods fail, acid can also be used. Canary-yellow stones have a certain attraction, but they belong to a different category. Greenish stones are also common, although a really good shade of this color is rarely maintained within a whole crystal. Brown stones are not uncommon, especially from South Africa. Pink stones are less common, while ruby ​​red, mauve, and blue stones are rare. Stones with the last of the listed colors usually have a "steel" hue. Sapphire blue stones are extremely rare and very expensive. To refer to diamonds with black specks of carbonaceous material inside, the French word "pique" (pique) is used, meaning "punctured" or "spotted from insect bites." The brilliance of a polished diamond is so characteristic that it has been called "diamond"; it is due to a combination of high light refraction and exceptional hardness. Diamond is the hardest substance found in nature. It is marked by Mohs on his hardness scale of 10, but the difference in hardness between diamond and corundum, which has a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale, is huge. It is difficult to measure the absolute hardness of diamond, but various methods for determining relative hardness have given figures indicating that diamond is 90 to 180 times harder than corundum. But, despite its exceptional hardness, under the influence of a strong blow, a diamond easily splits along planes parallel to the faces of a regular octahedron; it has four cleavage directions. This property of the diamond is used to give the stones a certain shape even before they are cut and polished. At present, diamonds are mainly shaped into diamonds, and only small diamonds are cut in the form of a rose. The degree of perfection of diamond crystals is closely related to the number and nature of inclusions, as well as to such a physical defect as cleavage cracks. The study of inclusions under the microscope has become an important and fascinating branch of the science of gemstones and often provides valuable information about their origin. The use of diamonds. A description of the properties of diamond would be incomplete without mentioning other valuable, albeit applied, areas of its application. Without the help of diamond, many types of modern engineering and mining work would be impossible or they would have to spend a lot of time and money. The use of diamond drill bits greatly facilitates the process of drilling hard rocks. The working part of a modern drill bit is a ring cast from steel. At its end there is a series of regularly spaced recesses, in which diamonds are interspersed (nowadays, a drilling board is usually used for this purpose, although carbopado is often used). When the drill bit rotates, an annular zone of rocks is drilled; inside there is a solid column of rock-core, which can be extracted to the surface. To cool the bit and to remove drilled rock particles, water is pumped through the working area by a pump. The service life of diamonds depends on the nature of the rock and the skill of the operator. The greatest difficulty is the drilling of such rocks, which are composed of minerals with sharply different hardness; in this case, diamonds can be easily pulled out of their cells. An experienced operator can determine the nature of the rock at the bottom of the well from the behavior of the bit and, by changing the pressure of the bit on the bottom, reduce the risk of damage to the bit. Diamond crystals, having the appropriate shape and cut at the required angle, are used in cutting tools for processing both metallic and non-metallic materials. In industry, tools coated with diamond powder are also often used. The strength of diamond makes it the most suitable material used in the manufacture of thin wire, in particular the filaments of electric lamps. Although almost all gemstones scratch glass, only a diamond can successfully cut a strip of glass. However, not every diamond grain is suitable for this purpose; sometimes a diamond breaks glass. It is best to use the edge where the two edges of the crystal meet at a sharp angle. The stones used in glass cutters are small in size, no larger than a pinhead, and reach an average weight of 1/30 of a carat. They are inserted into a copper or bronze frame.

The history of the stone. The extraordinary properties of the diamond gave rise to a lot of legends. The ability to bring good luck is just one of the countless properties attributed to the diamond. Diamond has always been considered the stone of winners, it was the talisman of Julius Caesar, Louis IV and Napoleon. Diamonds first came to Europe in the 5th-6th centuries BC. At the same time, diamond gained its popularity as a precious stone relatively recently, only five hundred and a half years ago, when people learned how to cut it. The first similarity of a diamond was possessed by Charles the Bold, who simply adored diamonds. Today, the classic brilliant cut has 57 facets, and provides the famous "play" of the diamond. The misconception that a diamond does not break has led to the loss of rare stones more than once. So, in 1476, during the internecine war between the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold and the French king Louis X1, Swiss mercenaries who fought on the side of the king broke into the tent of Charles the Bold during one of the battles. Seeing a lot of diamonds there - cut diamonds - they decided to check their authenticity with hammer blows. Seeing that the diamonds turn into powder, the Swiss decided that these stones were fake. Initially, diamonds were worn by military leaders, kings and emperors. They began to be used as women's jewelry only from the middle of the 15th century. The fashion for wearing diamonds - cut jewelry diamonds - was introduced by Agnes Sorel, the mistress of King Charles VII of France. Since that time, diamonds began to receive names.

The diamond has taken the first place among precious stones since its skillfully cut forms, known as diamonds, revealed all the perfection of the amazing properties of this mineral. Indeed, because it combines exceptional hardness, high light refraction, strong dispersion and high brilliance. A rough diamond has a rather nondescript appearance and is unappealing to the eye. Therefore, it is easy to understand why the Persians in the 13th century placed the diamond among the gems behind pearls, rubies, emeralds, and even chrysolites. A diamond subjected to jewelry processing - cutting, polishing, is called a diamond. The name "diamond" comes from the word "adamas" - the so-called mineral, which, as was believed in the time of Pliny, was superior in quality to other stones; however, Pliny clearly used the term "adamas" to designate other minerals besides that incomparable stone, which since the Middle Ages has been known as diamond (diamond). The name diamond comes from the Latin word adamantem and. its common form adiamentem, which are consonant with the Greek word adamas, meaning "indestructible", hinting not only at considerable hardness, but also at the misconception that a diamond can withstand any blow. famous diamonds. The largest diamond found has been named "The Cullinan". It was discovered in 1905 near Pretoria in South Africa. The mass of "Cullinan" was 3106 carats (or 621 g), and it cost 9 million pounds. The diamond was presented to the English king Edward VI. During processing, the Cullinan was split into 105 pieces; the largest of them weighing 516.5 carats (or 103.3 g) was named the "Star of Africa". Diamond "Koh-i-noor" never sold for money. It was found in India as early as 56 BC. e. In 1304, Sultan Aladdin Khili deceived the stone from the king of Malwa and took it to Delhi. In 1526 the Kabul king Babur invaded India. His son Humayun took the diamond to Persia and presented it to the Shah of Persia. Then the diamond again came to India as a gift, where it was taken over by another Persian Shah, Nadir. Seeing the diamond, he exclaimed in admiration: "Yes, this is a real mountain of light!" So the diamond got its name: translated from Farsi, "Kohinoor" means "mountain of light." In 1747 Shah Nadir was killed by his own guards. General Abdali, having captured the stone, fled to Afghanistan. In 1813, the Lahore king Ranjit Singh brought the diamond back to India by force of arms, ordered it to be inserted into a bracelet, which he wore at all receptions.

When in 1848 an uprising broke out between two Sikh regiments, all the jewels were declared spoils of war by the British and transported to England. The diamond was recut, and its weight was reduced to 21.2 g. In 1911, "Kohinoor" was inserted into the small Royal State Crown of Great Britain, made for Queen Mary. Because of its dramatic history, the Kohinoor diamond has become England's most famous jewel. Diamond "Regent" weighing 400 carats (80 g) was found in 1701 in Golconda (India). The English governor of the city of Madras, the former pirate Thomas Pitt, bought this diamond for £20,000 from a local jeweler and took it to London, where he sold it in 1717 for £125,000 to the regent of France, the Duke of Orleans. From that moment on, the diamond was named "Regent". At one time, this diamond adorned the hilt of Napoleon's sword. Now the diamond "Regent" is in the Louvre Museum in France, it weighs 27.35 g after cutting and is estimated at 3 million dollars. Diamond "Orlov" with a greenish-blue tint, weighing 200 carats (or 40 g) crowns the royal scepter of Russia. The diamond that became the basis of this diamond. was found at the beginning of the 16th century. in Golconda in India. Initially, it was cut in the form of a "high rose" weighing 300 carats. Shah Jehan was dissatisfied with the cut and ordered the stone to be cut. After that, the diamond acquired its modern form, but its weight fell to 200 carats. It was inserted into the throne of Shah Nadir, who took possession of the city of Delhi in 1737, and was called "Derianur" ("sea of ​​light"). The diamond was stolen, ended up on the market in Amsterdam, where Count Orlov bought it in 1773 for 400 thousand rubles for Catherine II. The queen ordered the stone to be set in her golden scepter. Diamond "Shah" weighing 90 carats (or 18 g) - yellow, but very transparent, 3 cm long - was found in Central India, probably in 1450. The diamond was delivered to the Shah's court in the city of Ahmadnagar. In 1591, Shah Nizam ordered that an inscription in Farsi be carved on one of the facets of the diamond: "Burkhan Nizam Shah II. 1000". In the same year, 1591, the ruler of Northern India, the Great Mogul Akbar, captured Ahmadnagar and took possession of the diamond. When Akbar's grandson Shah Jehan ("Lord of the World") ascended the throne of the Mughal dynasty, he ordered another inscription to be cut on the other side of the diamond: "Son of Dehangir Shah Jehan Shah. 1051". According to our reckoning, it was 1641. The son of Shah Jehan Aurang-Zeb hung a diamond over his throne and surrounded it with emeralds and rubies. Until 1738, the Shah diamond was kept in Delhi. In 1738 Shah Nadir attacked India, seized the diamond and took it to Persia. In 1824, the inscription "Lord of Qajar-Fath Ali Shah Sultan. 1242" appeared on the third facet of the diamond.

In 1829, the Russian diplomat and writer A. S. Griboyedov was killed in Tehran, the capital of Persia. The Russian government demands punishment for those responsible. The frightened Shah's court sends the Shah's son Khosrov-Mirza to St. Petersburg, who brings the Shah diamond as a gift to the tsar. So this stone ended up in the Diamond Fund of Russia.

Conclusion

As a result of research and study of additional material, I came to the conclusion that gems are minerals that have a beautiful appearance (usually only after grinding or polishing) and at the same time are quite rare, which is why they are expensive. They are widely used for the production of jewelry. These stones are characterized by beautiful coloration, high hardness and durability, bright brilliance and play. The actual price of a stone is determined by its individual characteristics, weight, cost of cutting, as well as changing market conditions, which depend on fashion, advertising and a number of other factors. Once cut, polished and set in a setting, the gem becomes the main piece of jewelry. The physical and chemical properties of the stones are different. They can be simple (like a diamond) or complex. Of all the small list of precious stones, the diamond aroused the greatest interest in me, so separate chapters of the abstract are devoted to it. The study of jewelry stones is, in my opinion, an interesting thing. Stones have long attracted the attention of people, their power is mentioned in legends, fairy tales, horoscopes, signs. According to them, some stones bring health and good luck, while others bring misfortune (diamond "Kohinoor"). To believe or not to believe is everyone's business. But I think there is some truth in this. Natural mechanisms of the influence of precious stones on a person still exist. Therefore, their study is relevant today.

Application

Rough diamond (Ex. No. 1)

Artificial diamonds (Ex. No. 2)

Rubies (Ex. No. 3)

Topaz (Ex. No. 4)

Amber (Ext. No. 5)

Pearls from Toba City, Japan (Exhibit #6)

Citrine (Ex. No. 7)

Etc. No. 8. List of gems

Chrysoberyl

Alexandrite

Aquamarine

• Chrysolite

• • Aquamarine

    Heliodor

• Demantoid

  • Almandine

Amethyst (deeply colored)

Tourmalines

• Rubellite (Elbaite) (pink, red)

  Verdelite (moderate green)

  Indicolite (sapphire blue)

  Polychrome tourmaline (green/pink)

noble opal

Etc. No. 9. Semi-precious and ornamental stones

• Chrysoprase

  Volosatik (rutile in quartz).

  Amethyst (light colored)

  Cornelian

  moss agate

  Heliotrope

  Aventurine

  • Rauchtopaz (smoky quartz).

    fire opal

• Rhodonite ( eagle)

• Serpentine (serpentine)

Etc. No. 10. Stones of organic origin

• Nacre

Etc. No. 11. Types of processing of precious stones

Brilliant cut

Emerald cut

Mixed cut

Step cut

• Briolette cut

  Pear cut

  Marquise cut

  wedge cut

  Pendelok cut

  rose cut

  Table cut

• stone carving

  • Glyptic

Inlay

Florentine mosaic

galtovka

Etc. No. 12 Distribution of stones by color

Color	transparent stones	Opaque or translucent stones
Colorless or white	Diamond+, corundum+, topaz+, spinel+*, beryl+*, rhinestone	Pearl+ (with mother-of-pearl shine), opal
		Morion, agate, melanitis, diopside, jet
	Topaz+*, rubelite+, spinel+, morganite+, kunzite	rose quartz, rhodonite
	Ruby+, alexandrite+ (with electric lighting), topaz+*, spinel+, hyacinth+, morganite+, pyrope, almandine	Jasper, corneol
Brown	Topaz+, spinel+, hyacinth+, tourmaline, rutile, grossular, spessartine	Sarder, jasper, carnelian, Tiger's Eye, smoky quartz, nephritis*, amber
Violet	Amethyst+, topaz+*, tourmaline+*, corundum+	Charoite, amethyst quartz
	Aquamarine+, topaz+*, sapphire+, indicolite+, spinel+*, euclase+	Turquoise, lapis lazuli
	Sapphire+,indigonite+, topaz+, beryl+, spinel+*, tanzaite	Turquoise, lapis lazuli, azurite, sodalite, labradorite
	Emerald+, chrysoberyl+, sapphire+, topaz+*, alexandrite+ (in daylight), aquamarine+, tourmaline+, euclase+, spinel+, andradite, grossular, diopside, epidote, enstatite, olivine	Emerald+, dioptase, chrysoprase, jasper*, prase, heliotrope, chrysopal, amazanite, nephritis, jade, malachite
Yellow or orange	Topaz+, heliodor+, chrysoberyl+, corundum+, spinel+, hyacinth,citrine , gaddenite, tourmaline*	cornelian, jasper, nephritis, amber
Striped, mottled	moor head	Jasper, agate, noble opal,onyx, heliotrope, aventurine, Tiger's Eye

Gems

* A stone of this color is rare

Literature

http://ru.wikipedia.org/

http://www.catalogmineralov.ru/

Anderson B. Definition of gemstones, 1983

Bank G. In the world of gems, 1979 Dyudya R., Rail L. World of precious stones, 1998

Zdorik T.B., Feldman L.G. Minerals and rocks, 1998 Kievlenko E. Ya., Senkevich N. N., Gavrilov A. P. Geology of deposits of precious stones, 1982

Kornilov N.I., Solodova Yu.P. Jewelry stones, 1986 Kulikov B.F., Bukanov V.V. Dictionary of gemstones. L., 1988 Merenkov B. Ya., Precious technical and ornamental stones, 1936

Putolova L. S. Gems and colored stones, 1991

Reed, P. Gemological Dictionary, 1986 Smith, G. Gemstones, 1984

Schumann V. World of stone, 1986

Elwell D. Artificial Gems, 1986

1 Orlova N. I know the world: precious stones and minerals, 2000

4 Olivine is a magnesium-iron silicate with the formula (Mg, Fe) 2.

5 Pyrite (Greek, literally - a stone that strikes fire), sulfur pyrites, iron pyrites - a mineral, iron sulfide of the chemical composition FeS2

6 Smithsonite is a mineral of the carbonate class, ZnCO3, Cu, Fe, Co, Cd impurities. White with a greenish or brownish tinge, sintered and reniform masses.

7 Aragonite (from Aragon - a region in Spain) is a mineral, one of the natural polymorphs of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

1 Mohs scale (mineralogical scale of hardness) - a set of reference minerals for determining relative hardness by scratching. As standards, 10 minerals are taken, arranged in order of increasing hardness.

1 Piezoelectric effect - the effect of the occurrence of dielectric polarization under the action of mechanical stresses (direct piezoelectric effect)

as Lecture >> Astronomy

Self processing activity stone meaningless and biologically... the speech of an adult, calling an object that attracts ... belonging to a charcoal artist, mineral"C", etc. Therefore ... automatically transfer quality the whole group ( precious metals) ...

Cursed and Killed (1)

Story >> Literature and Russian language

Artistic activity in quality entertainer and soloist. ..., thrown into a bowl stones, disguised from above with sedge ... - it's tricky called department of headquarters ... from their bridgehead precious person. - You ... The work of the German miners ended with the Russian ...

The stone has been used by man since ancient times, at first as a tool and as a weapon, but then it began to be used for other purposes. So, in the Southern Urals, such items made of jasper and rock crystal as knives, scrapers, arrows, etc. were found.

At first, stones were simply lifted from the surface of the earth, and then, in the Neolithic era, their extraction began. Stone mines were found in France, England, Sweden, Poland, on the island of Sicily, etc. In the Neolithic era, in addition to quartz, jade, obsidian, jadeite and other minerals began to be actively used.

So, for example, jade among most peoples served as a material for making weapons. In New Zealand, arrowheads were made from it almost until the end of the 19th century.

Also during the Neolithic period, the stone was an object of worship. Amulets were made from it and figures of the gods were carved. Jewelry was also made from stones. At Neolithic sites, ornaments made of quartz crystals, shells and colored pebbles have been found.

In subsequent eras, the stones did not lose their significance. So, according to Rao Bohadur, the emeralds of India became known for 2 thousand years BC. e., diamonds - for 1 thousand-500 years BC. e., sapphires and rubies of Sri Lanka - for 600 years BC. e. Gem mining is one of the oldest crafts. Items made of pomegranate, emerald, lapis lazuli, amazonite and amethyst have been found in ancient tombs in Egypt. Jewelry trimmed with turquoise and lapis lazuli was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun. The scarab beetle on the chest pendant of the pharaoh is carved from green stone.

Beautiful hard minerals were used to make seals that depicted gods, battle scenes, symbols of the profession. Seals of complex forms in the form of sacred scarab beetles in Egypt began to be made in 2100-1800. BC e.

In the period from XXI to XIV centuries. BC e. signet rings, dishes, weapons, decorated with colored stones were widespread.

In India, diamonds were usually divided into four castes, like the population:

1) brahmins are pure, colorless octahedral crystals;

2) shatriya - crystals, painted in reddish tones;

3) voishye - stones of a greenish color;

4) Shudras - gray stones.

Especially in India, red stones were valued, in the Middle East - blue, in Ancient Egypt - green. This was probably due to the fact that stones of this color were mined in these countries.

Amber is considered one of the most ancient gems. Even Pliny the Elder wrote that in Scythia there are “golden burning stones”. Amber got to Western Europe, India and China along trade routes. In some countries this stone is VIII -X centuries. served as the equivalent of gold and silver coins.

Ancient Greece in the 7th century BC e. the art of glyptics, stone carving, was born. At first, gems were made from carnelian, rock crystal, jasper, sardera, prazem and other varieties of quartz. In II-I centuries BC e. the material was garnet, emerald, sardonyx, onyx, etc.

Images of gods and heroes, scenes from myths, rulers, winners of the Olympic Games were carved on the stone.

The choice of stone depended on the plot. If these were mourning gems, then they were made of black stones. In this case, the stone usually depicted Proserpina, who was kidnapped by the ruler of the kingdom of the dead, Hades. Wedding gems were made of carnelian, they depict Cupid and Psyche. On amethyst, images of Dionysus, the god of winemaking and fun, were carved, on aquamarine - Neptune or Triton.

The Hermitage houses a unique collection of antique gems, which are real paintings on stone. In the VI century. BC e. the original Etruscan-Italian art of stone carving arose. A distinctive feature of this art was a magnificent, pompous style.

The most prominent masters of stone carving were Pyrgotel, Apollonides, Kronid, Aspasius, Athenion, Dioscorides. On the territory of Georgia, Belarus, the Black Sea coast, various items were found, mainly jewelry with precious stones: rock crystal, amethyst, chalcedony and other colored minerals.