Mark Quintilian on the upbringing of an orator. Quintilian's Pedagogical Ideas

Perhaps, any person who has connected his life with, and, especially, novice speakers, is concerned about the question of how you can become a truly outstanding and unsurpassed master of eloquence. And what could be better in this matter than recommendations and advice from a real Teacher of oratory?

Yes, there is no doubt that in our time, and in the past ten and centuries, you can find great people who can excite the minds of millions with their speeches, but, as in many issues in our life, in order to understand the essence, you need to return to roots. And if we talk about oratory, then its origins should be sought in Ancient Rome, namely, in the writings of Marcus Fabius Quintilian.

For all speakers and people who are simply hungry for interesting knowledge, we have prepared a material in which we will talk about who Quintilian is and what he taught.

A little about Mark Phoebe Quintilian

Mark Fabius Quintilian is a Roman teacher of eloquence (orator), as well as the author of the most complete textbook on oratory, which has come down to mankind since ancient times, called "Instructions to the Orator". This work was required for study in all schools of Rome, like the writings of Cicero. Quintilian is considered not only a person who expressed the tastes of the high society of Rome, but also a reformer, the first professional teacher who founded a public school, and the first classic of the humane.

Quintilian's work "Instructions to the Orator" was written in twelve volumes. This is a very thoughtful work, which systematizes a huge amount of knowledge on oratory, and also summarizes own experience author. Actually, we will talk about the ideas of Quintilian further.

Quintilian on the Education of the Orator or the Main Ideas of the "Instructions to the Orator"

To begin with, we note that Quintilian himself speaks of the orator's work, that it is very diverse and extensive, and it is simply impossible to say everything about it. However, in his work, he attempts to state all the most important of the traditional rules.

So, by analogy with Cicero, Quintilian draws the image of an orator as a sage, perfect both in his manners and in the knowledge and qualities necessary for eloquence.

Speaking about the upbringing of the future speaker, he says that it is necessary to educate him from childhood, and his teachers - parents, nurses and uncles - must teach him properly. The "Instruction to the Speaker" contains a huge amount of methodical reasoning on the topic of learning in childhood: teaching should be fun, the student consciously, and the student must be engaged in reading aloud and calligraphy.

Given that the speaker's speech must be beautiful, clear and correct, he must study grammar and reference speakers, prose writers and poets, and only after that can he move on to his own compositions. The future master of eloquence should know a lot - understand music, philosophy, geometry, pronunciation and other areas of knowledge.

A separate chapter of Quintilian's work is also devoted to how a teacher should work. The author presents a system of special exercises, gives fiction and speeches by eminent speakers.

Quintilian believes that rhetorical rules should not necessarily be revered by the speaker as some kind of immutable laws, because much of them can change based on the characteristics of circumstances, situations, times and deeds.

In addition, the philosopher in his work deviates from the regulations for constructing speeches that had already become well-established by his time. For him, they are only a guide to action, but not dogma - the rules should not limit the speaker in the ability to be independent. The author equates strict restrictions with instructions to the commander how to deploy troops, but they need to be deployed as the situation requires, and not stereotyped. Similarly, in speeches - the speaker must understand for himself whether the speech is necessary or not, whether it should be lengthy, addressed to everyone or to someone personally, it is required to use one figure of speech or another, to make the speech long or short, continuous or divided into parts, etc.

It is also important to say that Mark Fabius Quintilian divides rhetoric and speeches into special parts, which should also be taken into account in the education of a speaker.

Quintilian's division of rhetoric and speeches

According to Quintilian, rhetoric can be divided into five parts:

• Invention
• Location
• Statement
• Memory
• pronunciation

The goals of the speaker should be teaching, excitement and delight, but not every speech can pursue all three goals.

Thus, three types of speeches are distinguished:

• Evidential type - mainly associated with praise and censure: funeral speeches, speeches in court, etc. It is praise that requires special attention, decoration and distribution, which can be applied to people, gods, cities and any objects.
• Reasonable type - his main task is to provide advice, for example, at popular meetings or at speeches in the Senate. An important place in such speeches is occupied by the positive opinion of the public about the speaker. And he himself, given what he says about such things as war, peace, benefits, taxes, etc. must have information about the morals of the townspeople and the strength of the state.
• Judicial type - intended for prosecution or defense. This type of speech consists of five elements: introduction, narrative, proof, refutation and conclusion. Naturally, the author also explains the essence of the application of this scheme.

The future orator should know that at the end of a speech it is necessary to resort to arousing passions, and the extent to which he succeeds in this speaks of his eloquence and success. This is especially true in court cases, where the outcome depends both on the evidence and on the ability of the speaker to convince listeners and judges, exerting an emotional impact on them.

According to Quintilian, the orator should avoid grandiloquence, pomp and arrogance in his speeches, but speak meekly and modestly. It is enough even that the speaker will simply speak expressively, pleasantly and accurately. Passion, in turn, is an expression of condolence, anger, resentment, fear and hatred. As a result, the rhetorician concludes that the height of eloquence with regard to the excitation of passions lies in the fact that the speaker himself was driven by them. All this suggests that Quintilian assigns a special role in oratory.

What does it mean to be eloquent?

The art of eloquence, according to Quintilian, consists, first of all, in the fact that everything that the speaker thinks about can be expressed in words and conveyed to the audience. Based on this, the speaker's words should not only be pure and clear, but also correspond to his intention, and also be competently, correctly and beautifully arranged.

However, if a person is correct, as Quintilian claims, this does not mean that he is a speaker. The main difference between a speaker and a simple person who knows how to speak is the beauty and elegance of speeches, because. this is what can bring surprise and pleasure.

And, discussing this topic, Quintilian refers to Cicero, who says that eloquence, which does not cause surprise, cannot be considered eloquence. But any embellishment of speech should be related to the purpose and subject of speech, and also take into account the audience. It also says that the speaker must take into account the two most important points, which are the creation of a kind of expression and the delivery of a speech. For this reason, you need to know what should be exalted or humiliated in speech, what should be delivered with swiftness or modesty, what can be funny and what is important, what should be short and what should be lengthy.

Quintilian's ideas are in fact invaluable, but it is impossible to set out in a small text even a small part of the main provisions of such a great work as the Instructions to the Orator, and even written in twelve volumes. However, you can catch the very essence - the speaker must be brought up in such a way as to become comprehensively developed, intelligent, adequate and mature, and for this it is not enough just the ability to speak competently and beautifully. This is exactly what Mark Fabius Quintilian tells in all details and details.

Quintilian, along with the most prominent theoreticians of eloquence and orators of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, was able to learn the secrets of the word and do invaluable work to expand the boundaries of his knowledge and substantiate the theoretical and practical principles of oratory, taking his experience as a basis and analyzing the unsurpassed speeches of famous orators of his and previous eras.

"Instructions to the Orator" is truly the greatest work, which without a shadow of a doubt can be called a real gem in the study of the art of eloquence. And no one, either before or after Quintilian, created such works, where the theoretical analysis of oratory skills is presented in such a thorough and detailed way.

If you have the task of cultivating yourself as a true master of the word, then Instructions to the Speaker is instructions for you!

Ancient Rome. Pedagogical views of Quintilian.

Home education played a leading role in shaping the personality of a young Roman. The children received a religious upbringing. At the same time, the father served as a priest. Girls and girls were under the vigilant supervision of their mothers until marriage. Boys under the age of 16 were under the supervision of their father, studied household and field work, and mastered the art of owning weapons. Often, in front of a child, a massacre of a slave was going on. The family was responsible for the upbringing of young Romans.

The first attempts to create educational institutions date back to 449 BC. Classes were held by private individuals at the forum. K Sh in. BC. originates the profession of mentor. Slave women looked after children 4-5 years old. Slaves - teachers taught boys to read, write, count. Starting from the II century. BC. education began to be influenced by the traditions of the Hellenic centers of the ancient world. But Roman education did not lose its originality. While maintaining family education and public educational institutions, this education had a practical orientation. But the fine arts (music and singing) were excluded from the program. Main goal: to secure a career in politics or a military career.

In the 1st century the main disciplines were: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, architecture. By the 5th century excluded medicine and architecture. Thus, the program of SEVEN liberal arts took shape: trivium: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics; quadrium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music.

The lowest level of education for free citizens were trivial schools. The terms of study in them did not exceed two years. Girls and boys studied from the age of 7. Studied: Latin and Greek literacy, literature, counting. Learned to count on fingers. The teacher worked with each student separately. Physical punishment with a whip, a stick was widely used, and encouragement of successful students was also in use. Private grammar schools are advanced schools. Adolescents were trained from 12 to 16 years old. Here the Greek language, the foundations of Roman law, grammar, Latin, and rhetoric were added. The number of students was limited, and the training was individual. In a number of private schools for the children of wealthy citizens, physical training was also provided, but they did not teach dancing and singing. The youth underwent military training in military formations - the Legions.

In the IV century. schools of rhetoric appeared. Here they studied Greek and Roman literature, mathematics, astronomy, the foundations of law, and philosophy. Disputes were widely used. These schools trained lawyers for the state machine of the Roman Empire. The formation of philosophical thought took place under the influence of the Hellenic tradition.

Quintilian (40-118 AD) is a bright figure of pedagogical thought. Lawyer and orator, Quintilian drew his ideas from the Greco-Roman cultural heritage: the writings of Homer, Sophocles, Euripides, and others. Quintilian's main work is Oratory Training. Of the 12 books of the treatise, two are best known: "On home education boys" and "On Rhetorical Education". In these works, reflecting on the nature of man, Quintilian showed confidence in the positive foundations of human nature, not considering such properties the only ones. Education must cope with bad inclinations. And in order to achieve good results, it is necessary to combine human nature and education. Quintilian said that education should form a free person. "A child is a precious vessel that should be handled with care and respect." Family education, according to Quintilian, is designed to protect the child's psyche. You should not allow the presence of children in indecent places, so wrote Quintilian. physical punishment because they develop a slavish quality. great attention Quintilian attached to the selection of a nanny for children, who must have worthy moral qualities.

The teacher should teach the pet to think independently. Quintilian insisted on an education that would be useful to society. The purpose of education is a serious preparation of a young person for the performance of civic duties. He favored organized learning over homeschooling. "The light of a good school is better than loneliness in the family." Quintilian advocated the general availability of education and believed in the creative power of schooling. The pinnacle of education is mastery of the art of public speaking. This can be achieved through a special training system. The first step is home education and training. It was necessary to choose the right nanny with the right pronunciation. Until the age of 7, the child must master the rudiments of Latin grammar. At this time, children's interest in knowledge should be aroused by praise, fun, but subject to the measure. The primary education program included a number of subjects: grammar and style; morality, principles of mathematics, music. An extensive program was offered in grammar and rhetoric schools. "The art of the orator requires knowledge of many sciences."

Grammar school: studied several disciplines at the same time, not caring about the obligatory perfect mastery of them. The main subject is grammar.

Rhetorical schools: the main subject is rhetoric ("the art of eloquence"). The teacher was recommended to deliberately read texts with stylistic errors, which should be noticed and corrected by the students. It was recommended to conduct training in an inductive way - from simple to complex based on the work of memory. In education, Quintilian attached great importance to labor training. We need to learn a lot, Quintilian said, but thoroughly, the future speaker needs a developed memory, a sense of the artistic word, rhythm, good diction and intonation, expressiveness of speech and facial expressions; All of this needs to be developed at an early age. The best remedy education of the orator, Quintilian considered learning poems that would also contribute to moral education. He laid the foundation for the method of learning poems: the poem is read in its entirety. they break it into logical parts and memorize it in parts, in conclusion it is recited in its entirety.

480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Thesis - 480 rubles, shipping 10 minutes 24 hours a day, seven days a week and holidays

Pervakova Svetlana Alexandrovna Pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian: 35-96 n. e. : Dis. ... cand. ped. Sciences: 13.00.01: Karachaevsk, 2005 145 p. RSL OD, 61:05-13/1453

Introduction

CHAPTER I The practice of education among the Romans 14

1.1 Upbringing and education in the period of Republican Rome 14

1.2 Influence of Greece on Roman education 24

1.3 Upbringing and education in the period of the Roman Empire 39

CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTER 1 55

CHAPTER II. The Pedagogical Legacy of Fabius Quintilian Mark 59

2.1 Preschool (family) education 60

2.2 Benefits of schooling 67

2.3 Requirements for a teacher 73

2.4 Oratory - the highest goal of upbringing and education 84

CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTER II 93

CHAPTER III. The influence of the works of Mark Fabius Quintilian on the humanization of education: history and modernity 97

3.1 The impact of Marcus Fabius Quintilian on the pedagogical thought of the Renaissance 97

3.2 The contribution of Marcus Fabius Quintilian to the history of world pedagogy 105

CONCLUSIONS ON CHAPTER III 112

Conclusion 116

Bibliographic list of used

Literature 127

Introduction to work

Relevance of the research topic. The entry of our country into the pan-European cultural process requires understanding the historical basis of Western pedagogical culture. In this regard, of particular interest is the formation of humanism as a defining principle of European pedagogy, in which the pedagogical heritage of Marcus Fabius Quintilian occupies an important place. Together with the whole society, pedagogical science participates in the reassessment of the past and attempts to predict the future taking it into account.

In theoretical terms, the significance of such an appeal is seen in the systematization of the pedagogical ideas of Marcus Fabius Quintilian, identifying their humanistic orientation. In practical terms, rethinking and using the views of the Roman teacher on the upbringing and education of the younger generation can contribute to solving the issues of improving the organization of preschool and general education.

The ongoing search for ways to improve the professional and pedagogical training of future teachers is characterized by increased attention to the development of students' individuality, expanding the scope of their professional thinking and creativity. Ultimately, this is impossible without their awareness of the deep connections of pedagogical ideas, phenomena and facts in their integrity and interaction within the framework of the general cultural process. In this regard, the pedagogical ideas of ancient civilization have repeatedly attracted the attention of researchers.

The author of the first systematic review in Russia of pedagogical theories and practical systems used by various peoples of the ancient and new world, L.N.

1867), gave a worthy place to the pedagogical system of Marcus Fabius Quintilian in his work.

M. Kholodnyak in issue No. 12 of the journal "Education" for 1884 offers readers an exposition of the pedagogical views of Mark Fabius Quintilian, calling them the most humanistic ideas of Ancient Rome. He points out that many of the views and the pedagogical methods arising from them of modern teachers are, in fact, nothing new and were already expressed 18 centuries ago by Marcus Fabius Quintilian.

P. Sokolov in the "History of Pedagogical Systems" (Petrograd, 1916) of the Roman writers who spoke on pedagogical issues, singles out only Mark Fabius Quintilian. His choice is based on the fact that Marcus Fabius Quintilian combines psychological considerations and practical experience and observations into a theoretical system, while his pedagogical theory is closer to modern views than any other ancient writer.

L.Vinnichuk, the author of a meaningful series of essays entitled “People, mores and customs of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome” (M.: Higher School, 1988), addressed the pedagogical activity of the Roman teacher of antiquity. Built according to the thematic principle, the book makes it possible to trace, where possible, the development of ancient cultural and everyday traditions over a period of one and a half millennia. Here we can mention the studies of another Polish classical philologist - K. Kumanetsky and the book "History of the Culture of Ancient Greece and Rome" (M.: Higher School, 1990). It is built traditionally - according to the chronological principle, according to headings corresponding to certain areas of culture (philosophy, historiography, education), and, where possible, according to the principle of personalities: the work of individual philosophers, historians is considered. Without trying to embrace the immensity, the author gave only the most general, concise outline of history

ancient culture, which by no means replaces more detailed and profound special works on history, philosophy, pedagogy, and literature. However, the works of Marcus Fabius Quintilian received only a cursory mention.

An analysis of the pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian is found in textbooks and anthologies on the history of pedagogy, and also, very slightly, in works on the history of ancient literature. As for T.I. Kuznetsova, whom the Great Soviet Encyclopedia refers to as a researcher of the works of Mark Fabius Quintilian, she is interested in Mark Fabius Quintilian more as a speaker than a teacher, as well as all the oratory of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. In the book “Oratory in Ancient Rome” (M.: Nauka, 1976), T.I. Kuznetsova and I.P. Strelnikova explore the history and development of oratory in Rome, its active interaction with life in the republican period. In the chapters on the rhetoric of Imperial Rome, an analysis is given of the classic work of Marcus Fabius Quintilian "The Education of an Orator". Thus, the book highlights the main points in the development of oratory and examines the main rhetorical works, mainly in historical and literary terms.

In different literary sources, the name of the fundamental work of the famous speaker and teacher is different. We have already given the first version, there are also: “On the education of a speaker” [See: 192;39], [See: 137;18]; "Oratorical instruction" [See: 28;401]; "Education of the speaker" [See: 71; 182], "Instruction in oratory" [See: 37; 25].

Such a number of options makes it possible to conclude that there is not enough information about the only correct name, or this issue has not been sufficiently studied. We attribute this to the fact that “in comparison with the development that our classes have received

6 history of ancient Greece, the study of the history of ancient Rome cannot but be recognized as lagging behind.

In this work, we will adhere to the title "On the Education of a Speaker", which is given in the latest source - "Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary" edited by B.M. Bim-Bad (M., 2002). Here we also find a brief analysis of the content of the well-known essay: "The book contains information about the boy's home education, his studies at the grammar school, elements of rhetorical education, and reveals the main stages of work on speech."

However, no matter how the works and textbooks on the history of pedagogy are called, their subject remains the same: the historical development of views on education, and then, in fact, pedagogy as a science; the evolution of upbringing practice in various forms: family upbringing, specially organized upbringing and educational work of various educational institutions; activities of various public organizations aimed at promoting the mental, moral, physical and aesthetic development of young people. There is reason to assert that it is historical and pedagogical education, and in our case it is the study of the pedagogical works of Marcus Fabius Quintilian, that allows the modern teacher to better navigate the variety of ideas and approaches that existed and still exist in pedagogical practice. Historical and pedagogical knowledge helps both the future teacher and the practicing teacher in understanding the professional and pedagogical activity as such and their views on it.

The history of pedagogical teachings makes it possible to more fully understand the course and results of the interaction between society and pedagogy, leads to spiritual treasures, which sometimes turn out to be unclaimed in the education of new generations. In practice, this fundamental idea when discussing the problems of modern

teacher education is often little taken into account. The consequence of this is a far from adequate understanding of the significance of studying the history of pedagogy by future teachers and other specialists in the field of education and upbringing.

Thus, we state contradiction between the growing interest of Russian teachers in understanding the historical experience of mankind in the field of upbringing, education and training of the younger generation and the insufficiency of comparative pedagogical research in this area.

The urgency of the problem led to the choice of the topic of our dissertation work: "Pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian" (35-96 AD).

Based on the foregoing, research problem is formulated as follows: identifying the main pedagogical ideas of Marcus Fabius Quintilian and determining the influence of his pedagogical heritage on the humanization of education. The solution to this problem is target our research

Object of study: theory and practice of upbringing, education and training in ancient Rome.

Subject of study: pedagogical activity and pedagogical views of Mark Fabius Quintilian as a representative of ancient humanistic pedagogy

The above problem, purpose, object and subject of the study determined its following tasks:

find out the place and role of education, its purpose and direction on the basis of the pedagogical ideas of Marcus Fabius Quintilian;

to analyze the work “On the Education of a Speaker”, to highlight in it the main pedagogical views of the author on preschool education, family education, school education, requirements for a teacher;

determine the contribution of Marcus Fabius Quintilian to the enrichment of the history of pedagogy and show the possibility of creative use of his pedagogical heritage in the theory and practice of modern education;

trace the emergence and development of humanistic pedagogy from ancient times to the present day and identify the influence of the ideas of Marcus Fabius Quintilian on this development in the context of modern education and upbringing.

Methodological basis of the study the following provisions appeared: the conditionality of the emergence and formation of pedagogical ideas and concepts by economic, political and socio-cultural factors in the development of society; the integrity of the world pedagogical process and the originality of its manifestation in different countries; an axiological approach to education, recognizing a person as the highest value in society; objective character of pedagogical search; identification of regular and random in the practice of implementing pedagogical ideas and concepts.

As a specific methodological principle of this study was the study of the pedagogical activity and heritage of Marcus Fabius Quintilian in all the variety of its connections and dependencies. Specific-historical, culturological and systematic approaches were applied to the analysis and generalization of pedagogical facts, phenomena, theories.

The theoretical basis of the study made provisions, ideas and concepts, which disclosed:

> historical and pedagogical process as an integral part of the historical
cultural process (M.V. Boguslavsky, L.M. Volobueva,
A.N.Dzhurinsky, S.F.Egorov, G.B.Kornetov, S.V.Lykov, V.V.Makaev,
M.B.Mchedlidze, A.I.Piskunov, V.G.Pryanikova, Z.I.Ravkin, F.A.Fradkin,
M.F. Shabaeva);

> the essence of the pedagogical process (Sh.A. Amonashvili,
N.P. Anikeeva, M.V. Boguslavsky, V.G. Belinsky, V.P. Vakhterov,
V.I. Vodovozov, G.M. Lyamina, S.N. Smirnov, V.A. Sukhomlinsky).

In research, the author relied on publications and scientific works,
containing an analysis of the pedagogical heritage of Marcus Fabius Quintilian
(P. Smirnov, M. Kholodnyak), as well as devoted mainly to the study
his theory of oratory as the highest goal of education and
education (L.Vinnichuk, T.I.Kuznetsova, K.Kumanetsky,

L.N. Modzalevsky).

To solve the tasks set, the following methods of scientific and pedagogical research: theoretical analysis (study of primary sources, historical and pedagogical literature); historical, logical, comparative analysis; generalization and systematization of research materials.

Research sources: Mark Fabius Quintilian's essay "On the Education of an Orator" (in 12 volumes); works of domestic and foreign teachers, philosophers, culturologists, historians; publications of contemporary authors; editions of the central and local pedagogical press; vocabulary and reference literature, textbooks on pedagogy, history of pedagogy, history of education; publicistic and artistic literature. All sources used were selected taking into account the intended purpose of the study.

Scientific novelty of the research:

the pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian on family education, the advantages of school education over home education are systematized;

the main requirements for the professionalism of the teacher and his moral qualities, formulated by the Roman teacher, are revealed;

the views and ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian are revealed and characterized, which most convincingly prove the humanistic orientation of his pedagogical theory;

the historical role of the pedagogical heritage of Marcus Fabius Quintilian in the development of world humanistic pedagogy was determined;

the prognostic value of his heritage for the modern theory and practice of education in Russia is shown.

Reliability and validity of the results and conclusions of the study are provided with an extensive source study base, methodological validity of initial positions, systematic consideration of the problem, adequacy of the methods used for the purpose, tasks, object and subject of research.

The main theoretical provisions and results obtained in the course of the study are reflected in the author's publications. In general, the study makes a certain contribution to the theory and practice of teacher education.

Theoretical significance of the study:

generalized the main pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian;

humane-valuable guidelines were revealed, which guided the Roman teacher in substantiating the goals and objectives of upbringing and education;

the origins of the development of world humanistic pedagogy are characterized.

The questions developed by Marc Fabius Quintilian contain systematized scientific knowledge that contributes to a more complete and in-depth understanding of the integrity of the world pedagogical process, making it possible to comprehend the continuity of ideas in this process and identify the contribution of the teacher to science.

11 Practical significance of the study:

in the context of the increasing role and importance of family education, the systematization of the pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian contributes to solving the problems of modern education, improving the pedagogical culture of parents and can make a certain contribution to the basis for designing a model of family education;

The materials of the dissertation work allow us to rethink the practice of modern approaches to the organization of preschool and general education and improve it on this basis.

The main provisions and conclusions of the dissertation research can be used in the process of research work of graduate students and students on relevant topics, as well as in the system of advanced training of teachers and educators.

Provisions for defense:

Mark Fabius Quintilian - the greatest teacher-humanist of antiquity, whose works contribute to the realization of the need to increase the role of historical and pedagogical science in revising pedagogical knowledge, scientific substantiation of them from the point of view of connection with world history;

the significant contribution of Marcus Fabius Quintilian to the development of pedagogy lies in the continuity of his main pedagogical views for modern education (including preschool education, family education, the advantages of school education over home education, the education of a morally holistic personality, the humanization of education);

pedagogical views of Mark Fabius Quintilian on the content, essence of the process of family education, its means and methods are relevant for contemporary practice education (early teaching of foreign languages ​​to children, memory training, choice

environment of the child among peers, the need for sufficient pedagogical culture of parents);

Philosophical and pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian that education should be morally oriented in tune with the modern concept of personality development.

Approbation of the work and implementation of the main results of the study: the results obtained were discussed in 2003-2004. at meetings of the Pedagogy Department of the Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University, as well as in the process of the author's participation in the republican scientific and practical conference on the problem "Modernization of Education: Traditions and Innovations" at the Republican Pedagogical College in Cherkessk, December 18-19, 2003; in the "University Readings-2004" dedicated to the 65th anniversary of the Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University on January 8-9, 2004; in the regional interuniversity scientific-practical conference of students, graduate students and young scientists "Young Science-2004" on April 13, 2004, dedicated to the 65th anniversary of the same university; in the V scientific-practical conference "From fundamental science - to the solution of applied problems of our time" April 15-17, 2004 in the Karachay-Cherkess State Technological Academy, Cherkessk; in the IV International Congress "Peace in the North Caucasus: through languages, education, culture" September 21-24, 2004 at the Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University.

The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected in 5 publications of the author.

The structure of the dissertation research. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliographic list of references.

In the introduction the relevance of the topic is substantiated, the problem, object, subject, purpose and objectives of the study are identified, its

the methodological and theoretical basis, the research methods and its source base are indicated, the scientific novelty, the theoretical and practical significance of the results obtained are formulated and disclosed, their validity and reliability are stated, the provisions submitted for defense are stated.

In the first chapter"The practice of education among the Romans" reveals the features of the process of formation of pedagogical thought in the period of Republican Rome, shows the changes that occurred in this area under the influence of Greek thinkers in the era of Imperial Rome - the period of pedagogical activity of Mark Fabius Quintilian.

Second chapter"The Pedagogical Heritage of Marcus Fabius Quintilian" is devoted to the analysis of the views of the Roman teacher on family education, the methodology and content of school education, the quality of teacher training, and the main goal of upbringing and education is determined. AD - training in public speaking.

In the third chapter"The influence of the works of Marcus Fabius Quintilian on the humanization of education: history and modernity" shows his contribution to the development of world humanistic pedagogy in the Renaissance, at the present stage.

In custody generalizations and conclusions based on the results of the study are given, the significance of the pedagogical heritage of Marcus Fabius Quintilian for the development of modern pedagogical theory and practice is revealed.

Bibliographic list of used literature includes 249 sources.

Upbringing and education during the period of Republican Rome

Roman education was determined by the character of the Roman people themselves. A distinctive feature of this character, in the period of the highest development of the republican life of Rome, was respect for family life and recognition of the rights of women [See: 171; 125]. Approximately until the III century. BC. family education, inherited from the era of the tribal system, dominated here: the father taught his son how to manage the household, own weapons, took care of developing in him such moral qualities highly valued in Rome as devotion to the motherland, obedience, modesty.

The foundations of all national life were: war, agriculture and simplicity in all respects; only love for the fatherland, courage and military exploits were considered merit and could cause general respect. The more Rome was transformed into a completely new, republican state, and took on a purely militant character, the simpler and more severe social life became, and at the same time education. Only during the period of kings and the predominance of the aristocracy, this harsh simplicity of ancient Roman life was somewhat violated, but during the time of the republic it was restored again. Incessant warfare maintained this warehouse of Roman life. Among the Romans, every citizen was a soldier, and all the highest dignitaries were elected from the highest military leaders. Only women were allowed some luxury in private life, while men became even ruder and more severe from constant wars. Agriculture and military service were the main occupations of the Roman and were considered the only honorable branches of activity.

The real national entertainments of the Romans were horse racing and war games, the beginning of which dates back to the most remote times; while everything that had anything to do with art and technical dexterity was at first completely alien to them. The games of gladiators that arose later fully corresponded to the rude nature of the Romans and therefore, immediately after their appearance in Rome, they became the favorite entertainment of the people [See: 171; 125-126].

Noble Romans, excluding senators, lived mainly on their estates, coming to the city only for a while and returning back at the end of their business. The father was not only the head, but the lord and master of the whole family, and the state did not decisively intervene in anything that happened in the bowels of the family. The father had the “right of life and death” in relation to his children: he determined the fate of all who depended on him; he could either recognize his own child, born to him in a lawful marriage, as his own and take it into the family, or, without being subject to any responsibility, he could abandon his newborn child, appropriate all the property of his sons, sell them into slavery three times, and even take their lives. Already the “Laws of the XII Tables” prescribed the killing of babies born weak or crippled. At the same time, the father had the right to reject, not to accept into the family a completely healthy child - both a boy and a girl. They abandoned mainly girls, or illegitimate children, and already in the 3rd and 4th centuries. BC. the Romans freely disposed of children at their own will [See: 71;162-179]. Although in Rome there were cases of abuse of parental power, but, nevertheless, they were very rare, and in ancient times, family power had the advantage that it made courts and written laws almost unnecessary [See: 171; 126]. Even later, in the II century. BC. Gaius, the jurist, cites the words of Emperor Hadrian that "there is no nation that would have greater power over its children than the Romans" [Cit. in: Guy, Instructions, I].

The center of education, as already mentioned, was the family, which always and everywhere relies on a woman. Having many slaves who performed all household chores, the Roman wife did not interfere in many branches of the household. Roman women were not, like Greek women (with the exception of Sparta), removed from public and state life, were not limited to one family and home circle. They were not doomed to seclusion in the half of the house reserved exclusively for them, but spent time in common rooms [See: 71;163]. They were not alien to the general male education, which among the Greeks was available only to hetaerae, and therefore the history of Roman education, as opposed to Greek, provides us with an example of the strong influence of women on the development of the nation. A married Roman woman had a very honorable position in society, was educated and took part in the public life of men. In addition, she freely appeared in society, went to visit, attended ceremonial receptions, about which Greek women did not dare to think. A woman's dependence on her father or husband was limited only to the sphere of property relations: a woman could neither own real estate nor dispose of it [See: 71;163]. Dissolution of marriage in the flourishing period of the Roman state, although it was available for a man, was a rarity in life.

In the native family, both boys and girls were early accustomed to neatness, determination, simplicity and noble decency. These qualities were further strengthened in youth under the influence of social life and the glorious traditions of national history, imprinted with indelible features in the youthful character. These virtues constituted the task of Roman education. “Among the Greeks,” said Cicero, “some indulge in poetry with all their hearts, others in geometry, and still others in music; others, like, for example, dialecticians, discover a special circle of activity for themselves and devote all their time, their whole lives to arts and inventions, in order to form a youthful spirit on the principles of humanity and virtue with their help.

Preschool (family) education

The family as an object of study attracts the attention of a number of scientific disciplines, each of which finds its own subject for study within the framework of its life activity. Thus, history studies the family in retrospect of its development; psychology sees its subject in analysis interpersonal relationships; demography - in the performance of the family reproductive function; medicine - in the study of the health status of family members; sociology - in the study of cause-and-effect relationships of the formation and functioning of marriage. Pedagogy, for its part, has an interest in the family in connection with its educational function, seeking to support and, if possible, develop the educational potential of spouses-parents.

The influence of the family on children is extremely diverse - from their habits to their worldview. However, the dominant side in the educational activities of the family is moral education. In the conditions of a developed society, the harmonious development of all its aspects, including the flourishing of spiritual culture, the educational potential of the family rises to a new level, and, consequently, the possibilities of the family in the moral formation of the personality increase immeasurably.

The moral formation of a personality is formed under the influence of many factors: the nature of family relations, the moral example of parents, their educational level, and the organization of family life. However, the most significant educational plan are family relations, their moral and emotional side, the level of pedagogical culture of parents [See: 153;101].

Family education is the beginning of all beginnings. The well-known teacher of the last century A.S. Makarenko said: “The upbringing of a child ends at the age of 5”, showing by this that the basis of all further upbringing and education can be laid at such an early age only in the family. Education is the first good of man, the first necessity: the fate of his whole life depends on it.

Mark Fabius Quintilian, who made many important remarks about the initial upbringing of the child in the family, paid attention to the same issue.

The recognition of the pedagogical ideas of Mark Fabius Quintilian was that the emperor Domitian entrusted him with the education of his nephews, although "... his entire educational system has in mind, mainly, the preparation of the most perfect orator, who must, however, be the most perfect person" [See .: 171; 150]. Based on the ideas of Plato, he, nevertheless, remains in his theory of education a real Roman, who reduces everything to the needs of practical life.

A very interesting impression was left after reading several parts of his work. Some thoughts (apart from this magnificent, leisurely, thoughtful style) turn out to be quite modern. The style itself provides an excellent opportunity to feel the inseparability of times and feel the eternal desire of mankind for progress - at least in their children. We are also surprised to find that the discussion about the early development of modern children and disputes about the benefits various techniques- by no means a product of our time.

So Mark Fabius Quintilian early learning children: “As soon as a son is born, the father should from that very time place the best hopes on him. This will make him more caring from the very beginning” [See: 177;29]. On this basis, he demanded that spiritual education should not begin from the seventh year, but from a very early age and “... proceed gradually, in accordance with the gradual development of children. At the same time, of course, children should not be burdened with activities that in this case can instill in them an aversion to science and which should begin and be accompanied by play at this age ”[See: 171; 150].

“And I,” said Mark Fabius Quintilian, “take into account age: I don’t want a child to be forced to study, I don’t demand full diligence from him. I advise you to beware most of all, so that the child does not hate learning, which he has not yet had time to love, and that, having once experienced bitterness, he should not be afraid of it even in adulthood. Teaching should be fun for him; it is necessary to encourage him now with requests, now with praises, bring him to the point where he rejoices when he learns something, and envies when they begin to teach another, if he himself decides to be lazy; to compete in success with his peers and often consider himself a winner; for this, rewards will not be superfluous, which are very tempting for this age ”[See: 192; 40] - we read in the first chapter of book I of the essay “On the Education of an Orator”. It is necessary to take care as early as possible to arouse a sense of honor in children and to this end encourage it, but in case of their unwillingness to learn, arouse their interest by competition.

Oratory is the highest goal of upbringing and education

Oratory has become a significant social phenomenon that has reached a high level in the ancient world: Egypt, India, China. However, it is Ancient Greece that is recognized as the birthplace of eloquence, where its theory began to take shape [See: 37; 7]. The history of eloquence goes back many centuries. Already in the 5th century BC. two Greeks from Syracuse compiled a textbook of rhetoric. Under Greek influence, orators and theoreticians of rhetoric appear in Rome, primarily Mark Tullius Cicero and Mark Fabius Quintilian. This is the heyday of rhetorical art and rhetorical science, it has left us many great works and names. Along with the epic, lyrics, drama, sculpture, music and architecture, rhetoric was recognized as a necessary and complex art. She was even considered the "queen of the arts" - so strong was her influence on the decision of state affairs, so effectively she influenced the feelings and minds of people. From the pre-Ciceronian period of the development of Roman oratory, history has preserved for us many names of orators, much less information about them, rather a large number of fragments and not a single whole speech. Of particular value among the sources from which one can draw information about the eloquence of republican Rome, in addition to the surviving fragments, are reviews and essays on the history and theory of Roman rhetoric contained in the Education of an Orator by Marcus Fabius Quintilian [See: 149; 8]. Rhetoric was a natural integral part of ancient life. Moreover, “delighting the listeners” with fresh or bold thoughts and noble feelings, for example, goodness and justice, civic duty and patriotism, was considered a particularly important task of the orator. Rhetoric, of course, took the teachings of the ancients and mainly Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian on oratorical eloquence as the basis for all its expositions [See: 110; 10-11]. With the extinction of antiquity, rhetoric ceased to be a vital science, and the vital necessity in the profession of an orator also disappeared. But rhetoric, as an art of speech, enjoyed great honor and respect in Europe until the 17th century, and in the Middle Ages it was even among the seven "selected sciences."

At the beginning of the 17th century, rhetoric also penetrated Russia. The history of rhetoric was also developed in Russia; many outstanding figures of Russian literature were engaged in it: from Makariy (manuscript of 1623 “Books are two rhetoric”) to F. Zemlinsky (XIX century). The founder of a systematic approach to rhetorical theory and practice in Russia is M. Lomonosov. His work "Rhetoric" (1748) defined the essence of rhetorical art, the place of rhetoric among other sciences. In Russia in the 19th century, the history of rhetoric was studied by the professor of Russian literature K.P. Zelenetsky. He wrote about rhetorical issues, analyzed in detail the changes that Mark Tullius Cicero and Mark Fabius Quintilian made to rhetorical theory [See: 110; 13].

The theory of oratorical eloquence, as well as oratorical education, was developed by Marcus Fabius Quintilian to such completeness that he still remains the authority on the subject. The Roman educator owned all the rhetorical literature that existed before him, and listed it in detail. Of the Romans, he mentioned M. Cato the Elder, M. Antinius, Cicero and others [See: 28;403]. The speaker needs to stock up on books that will teach the abundance of thoughts and expressions. In this regard, Marcus Fabius Quintilian identified the best historians, philosophers, poets, orators, Greek and Latin, worthy of citation. For the historian of literature, the tenth book of the treatise of Marcus Fabius Quintilian is especially interesting. The entire rather extensive first chapter of Book X is devoted to the selection of books to read. Here, a well-known speaker and teacher expressed a lot of opinions about Greek and Roman writers, which are very curious and useful to read, and now anyone who would like to enter the atmosphere of ancient literature, on the basis of which the aesthetic principles of the Greco-Roman world were formed. The tenth book provides an overview of Greek and Roman poetry and prose by genre, identifying the most important representatives of each genre and critical comments on their style. Reviews of Greek writers reproduced judgments established in the traditions of rhetorical teaching; Mark Fabius Quintilian was more independent in relation to Roman writers, and "Ciceronianism" does not prevent him from being impartial in assessing the merits of later authors [See: 216;457].

In 68 AD Mark Fabius Quintilian opened an oratory school [See: 132;496]. He became the first teacher of rhetoric officially in the public service. 69-79 AD - Reign of Emperor Titus Flavius ​​Vespasian. With his coming to power, the period of the Flavian dynasty began (until 96 AD). Vespasian opened the first rhetorical chair, which was occupied for 20 years by the rhetorician Mark Fabius Quintilian [See: 233;69]. He defined the subject of rhetoric as follows: “I will put all the subjects that need to be discussed as the subject of rhetoric: in this I am based on the opinion of excellent writers. Socrates in Plato inspires George that not in words, but in things is the subject of rhetoric. In the Phaedrus, Socrates directly proves that it does not only take place in judicial speeches and proceedings, but in private and domestic matters. He divided rhetoric into five parts: invention, arrangement, verbal expression, memory, utterance (or action). The speeches themselves he divides into three types: 1) commendable, reprehensible; 2) reasoning; 3) judicial [See: 28;403]. In 91 AD he left teaching and soon received honorary consular badges [See: 132;497-498].

It is easy to see that the stylistic ideal of Mark Fabius Quintilian was close to Ciceron's. His requirements for good oratory were not much different from those of Cicero. These are far from coincidences: Marcus Fabius Quintilian sought to reform the modern style of eloquence by returning it to Ciceronian norms. His work is the first attempt to revive the Ciceronian ideal, to develop the classical principles developed and substantiated by the great orator and stylist, who, in turn, continued best traditions ancient Greek theory of eloquence. Mark Fabius Quintilian recognizes the ability to appreciate Cicero as a criterion of oratorical taste [See: 149; 178]: “The more you like Cicero, the more confident in your success,” he said to a young speaker [Cit. by: M.F. Quintilian. On the education of an orator, X, 1].

The impact of Marcus Fabius Quintilian on the pedagogical thought of the Renaissance

In the XV-XVI centuries. in a number of countries of Western and Central Europe, a bourgeois ideology and culture began to take shape, due to the emergence of the capitalist mode of production. The appearance of the first signs of new social relations resulted in the emergence of a new view of the world and man, as opposed to the medieval religious-dogmatic worldview. Medieval asceticism, with its denial of the joys of life and the preaching of preparation for the afterlife, eternal existence, is gradually being replaced by the ideas of humanism, which opposed secular science to theology, put forward the ideal of a cheerful, strong in spirit and body man. The advanced thinkers of this period began to pay special attention to the study of the rich literature of the ancient world, forgotten in previous centuries. Roman literature played an important role in the development of Western European literature. After all, the only source of acquaintance of the European West with ancient culture over a long period of time (up to the 17th century) was the preserved monuments of ancient Roman literature.

A new era began, known in history as the Renaissance. Humanism in the history of philosophy was formed as a philosophical trend, thanks to the opposition of religion and scholastic philosophy in the Renaissance, which laid the foundations and became the beginning modern culture and perception of the world. Humanism has become the personification of a new worldview, discovering new principles for understanding the world and man in it. Humanism, in its essence, arose as a contradiction to the established religious understanding of man and the world. Progressive ideas about the mission of man on earth, which formed the content of humanism as the leading ideological movement of the era, had a huge impact on the entire subsequent development of world culture. Carrying the potential of secularism and rationalism, humanism opened the way to the knowledge of human nature. The ideal of a diversified human personality, which had developed in antiquity, underwent in a new era significant changes. Renaissance thinkers not only described this ideal, but they themselves were its embodiment.

The ideas of humanism were reflected in the views of advanced thinkers on education and in the practice of individual schools of that time. Mastering the skills of self-education humanists put above all else. The basis of the school curriculum was the study of classical languages ​​and literature, which, of course, included the study of the traditional "seven free arts". There were many borrowings in the teaching methodology from Marcus Fabius Quintilian. Humanists demanded to study Latin and Greek in schools in order to master the cultural heritage of the ancient world, as well as real objects that provide knowledge necessary for practical activities. Humanists also insisted on the use of active methods in teaching that develop the thinking of children. In full accordance with the ancient ideal of man, Renaissance educators took care of physical development children, about their health, developed a methodology for physical education, giving a large place in it to games. Renaissance humanism undoubtedly played a positive role in the cultural development of Europe, but it had a pronounced class character, meeting the interests and needs of the emerging bourgeoisie. Even the Romans, especially Cicero, called humanism the highest cultural and moral development of human abilities into an aesthetically finished form, combined with softness and humanity. Later, humanism was the name given to the movement, more or less opposed to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church, trying to extract the ideal of purely human education and behavior from the newly discovered works of antiquity by the beginning of the New Age. The age of humanism lit the way for the age of the Renaissance.

The most radical pedagogical ideas in the Renaissance were expressed by the greatest English humanist Thomas More (1478-1535) in the "Golden Book, as useful as it is funny, about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia" and the Italian Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639 ) in the essay "City of the Sun". In the writings of these great humanists, the ideas of social education of children, universal education in the native language, equality of education for men and women, and the combination of education with labor were put forward for the first time [See: 192; 49-50]. Humanists believed that practical activity would lead to the common good as the highest goal [See: 10;267]. To study rhetoric for T. More means to read Mark Fabius Quintilian. Thomas More, in particular, expressed a deep faith in the natural abilities of people, which can always be developed through work and training in the right direction [See: 183; 44-58]. The main ideas of Thomas More: an educational program based on ethics, the study of Greek and Latin, and the imitation of ancient pagan and Christian authors, represented the most sound plan for the spiritual revival and reconstruction of church and society.

In Germany XV-XVI centuries, humanism took on a peculiar character in connection with the struggle against the Catholic Church (Reformation). German humanists advocated a thorough study of the Latin, Greek language so that in the process of reading ancient literature, the Bible and the works of the so-called Church Fathers, it would be possible to expose their falsification by the Catholic clergy. Humanists believed that the Christian faith in the church would only be strengthened by the cleansing of ancient biblical texts from scholastic layers and distortions. This practical side of the "Christian humanists", who tried to attract as many followers as possible, prompted them to re-evaluate the role of rhetorical art, to which they attached great importance in everyday preaching. Rhetoric meant more to humanists than literary, legal, or even political art. For them it is, first of all, the art of persuasion, thanks to which true faith is freely distributed and perceived; means to motivate people to do good. This idea goes back to the position of Marc Fabius Quintilian, who believed that the most perfect orator is only a virtuous person.

Radkevich, Mikhail Mikhailovich

Mark Fabius Quintilian, the most famous Roman orator and teacher, was the founder of one of the best schools of rhetoric in Rome, which soon became widely known and became a state school.

Based on the experience of his school and the achievements of the pedagogical thought of the ancient world, Quintilian created the first special pedagogical work “On the Education of an Orator”, which also reflected some general pedagogical problems.

Quintilian contributed to the understanding of the role of human nature in its development. He attached great importance to natural data, highly appreciated the natural abilities of children and had no doubt that already at an early age it was possible to determine the degree of abilities (the first signs of the mind of young children are memory, quick and accurate, susceptibility and long retention of acquired, early development in a child desire to imitate), but believed that education can achieve a lot.

Quintilian criticized family education in the upper strata of Roman society, where children were admitted to feasts and witnessed the unseemly behavior of adults; condemned parents for indulging children and underestimating the importance of the childhood period for the formation of a person's personality. Quintilian demanded from parents, nurses and nannies that they remember that the child is very receptive and both good and bad easily take root in him; This should also be taken into account when choosing peers and teachers.

Quintilian, like Aristotle, assigned the age from 5 to 7 years to prepare for school. He believed that children under 7 years of age should practically master two languages ​​- native and Greek, first Greek, and then in parallel and native. He also allowed systematic classes with children, provided that learning would be joyful. Quintilian advised to encourage kids with praise, requests, challenge them to competitions with their peers, and not spare awards.

The Roman teacher gave methodological advice on teaching children to read and write. He insisted on simultaneously familiarizing them with the type and name of the letters with the help of visual aids(letters of ivory), insisted on the observance of systematic and consistent teaching.

There is not much to learn, Quintilian said, but thoroughly, the future speaker needs a developed memory, a sense of the artistic word, rhythm, good diction and intonation, expressiveness of speech and facial expressions; All of this needs to be developed at an early age. Quintilian considered the best means of educating an orator to be learning poems, which would also contribute to moral education. He laid the foundation for the method of learning poems: the poem is read in its entirety. they break it into logical parts and memorize it in parts, in conclusion it is recited in its entirety.

In the history of the development of pedagogical thought, Quintilian occupies an important place as the author of the first special pedagogical work, who laid the foundations of didactics and methodology, and systematized the requirements for raising children. preschool age

A significant contribution to the development of pedagogical problems was made by ancient Roman philosophers and thinkers.

MARK TULLIUS CICERO(106-43 BC) - was recognized as the first teacher of the Roman people. The ideal of education - a perfect orator and public figure. He believed that the only way to achieve truly human maturity is a systematic and continuous education and self-education .

LUCIUS ANEI SENEC(c. 4-65 AD) - proclaimed the main task of education moral perfection of man. Main method of education he considered self-promotion towards the divine ideal. In this, Seneca anticipated the Christian views on education. The main concept that characterizes the process of education is the ``norm''. An educator-philosopher in his pedagogical activity should not allow deviations from the norm, and his behavior in life should affirm it. Main means of education - edifying conversations-sermons with good examples from life and history: ``...Long is the path of instruction, short and convincing is the path of examples"". Seneca was a supporter encyclopedic education .

31. Development of pedagogical thought in a vast region (Iran, part of Central Asia, Syria, Egypt and North Africa), conquered in the 7th - 8th centuries. Arabs, marked with the stamp of Islam. The spiritual values ​​contained in the Koran determined the religious and moral principles of upbringing and education. Islam - the last of the world's religions - was formed under the influence of Christianity. Many canons of the Qur'an are similar to the biblical moral precepts.

Islam grew up on the basis of interconnected cultures of the countries of the Arab Caliphate, Byzantium, India, and China. The Arab conquest did not mean a complete break with the cultural and pedagogical traditions of Hellenism and Byzantium. The Islamic world accepted and mastered ancient philosophy, in particular Plato and Aristotle, borrowing from it a rationalistic view of man.

The evolution of culture, education, and pedagogical thought in the Islamic medieval world went through a number of stages. In the early era (7th - 10th centuries), the problems of education in the Islamic world were not considered. The first treatises on education appeared in the 11th century. (Avicenna, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali and others).

The time of a kind of oriental renaissance came in the 9th - 12th centuries. The prestige of knowledge has grown. Arab-Muslim scholars have subjected the philosophical and pedagogical heritage of antiquity to a deep study. Ideas of humane, harmonious development of personality were put forward. The thinkers of the East tried to penetrate into the essence of human nature, to take into account the social and biological determinants of education. Particular importance was attached to the social essence of man. The main goal of education was seen primarily in the desire of a person to acquire high spiritual and moral qualities.

The thinkers of the Arab East devoted their works to the development of a program for the harmonious development of the personality. They themselves were the standard of such harmony and condemned both educated scoundrels and pious ignoramuses.

Opens the list of scientists-encyclopedists of the Islamic world, the founder of Arabic philosophy Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq Kindi(801-873). He put forward the concept of four types of intelligence: actual, potential, acquired and manifesting. Considering science to be higher than religion, Kindi believed that during education it is necessary to form not Muslim fanaticism, but high intelligence.

Highly honored the Arab world scientist and philosopher al-Fara-bi(870 - 950). Al-Farabi deeply and originally saw a number of essential pedagogical problems. An opponent of clericalism, he argued that only madmen could believe that the highest good is outside the existing world. The purpose of education, according to Farabi, is to bring a person to this good through encouraging the desire to do good deeds. Knowledge helps to realize what exactly is good or evil.

Farabi proposed a system of methods for educating virtues. Receptions were divided into "hard" and "soft". If the pupil shows a desire to learn, work and do good deeds, soft methods are appropriate. If the ward of the teacher is malicious, negligent, wayward, punishments are quite justified - "hard" education.

In more than one hundred and fifty treatises of another outstanding thinker of the East, al-Biruni(970 - 1048), important fruitful pedagogical ideas are scattered in a multitude: visibility and consistency, development cognitive interests education, etc. Biruni argued that the main goal of education is moral cleansing - from inhuman customs, fanaticism, recklessness, the thirst to rule.

Called by his contemporaries "the lord of sciences", adviser to the rulers of various countries of the Near and Middle East Ibn Son (Avicenna in Latin transcription) (980-1037) devoted many years to teaching and left many works, among which the "Book of Healing" stands out, which includes the treatises "Book of Soul", "Book of Knowledge", "Book of Instructions and Instructions" directly related to pedagogical theory ".

Ibn Sina dreamed of a versatile upbringing and education, and above all music, poetry, philosophy. He saw such a path in organizing joint studies of pupils, introducing a spirit of rivalry. Co-education was to take place at different levels according to the abilities of the students. The foundation of any education Avicenna called the mastery of reading and writing. General development should have preceded pre-professional and vocational training. As soon as a teenager mastered literacy, he should be prepared for a future profession (for example, taught to draw up reports and other documents). Then it was necessary to enter into the actual profession: the teenager should begin to work and earn money.

One of the most prominent philosophers of the East paid much attention to the problems of education. al-Ghazali(1056/59 - 1111). The scientist's four-volume compendium "The Resurrection of the Sciences of Faith" is devoted, in particular, to the development of human abilities, methods of observing children with the aim of educating them. Al-Ghazali emphasized the need from an early age to learn to behave at the table, to be unpretentious in everyday life, to temper by exercise.

The soul of the child acquires the desired shape if educators, especially parents, follow certain pedagogical recommendations. The teacher accepts the child from the parents and continues the traditions of family education. The moral principle, al-Ghazali believed, is formed through self-education and imitation of wise mentors. With education, the strengthening of the intellect, the role of self-education grows. Self-education begins with self-observation and self-knowledge. By observing the misdeeds of others, you can see your own shortcomings and make a judgment about them. To overcome moral vices, God's help, long-suffering and constant spiritual efforts are needed. If a bad habit is too ingrained, it can be "screened" by replacing it with a less harmful one, and then get rid of it altogether. It is possible at the same time to use corporal punishment, although one should not get carried away with it. It is necessary to punish in private, so as not to humiliate the child in his own eyes and in the eyes of others. It is preferable, however, to act by persuasion, taking care not to bother the pupil with admonition.

Moral self-improvement is one of the constant themes of Eastern philosophers and leading, for example, in treatises on psychology, logic and ethics of the "wise man of wise men" ibn Baja(Latinised name Avenpace(late 11th century -1139).

Khayyam owns the "Treatise on the evidence of the problems of al-jabra and al-muqabala." In its first chapters, Khayyam outlines the algebraic method for solving quadratic equations, described by al-Khwarizmi. In the following chapters, he develops a geometric method for solving cubic equations, dating back to Archimedes: the unknown in this method was constructed as the intersection point of two suitable conic sections. Khayyam gave a rationale for this method, a classification of the types of equations, an algorithm for choosing the type of a conic section, an estimate for the number of (positive) roots and their magnitude. Unfortunately, Khayyam did not notice that a cubic equation can have three positive real roots. Cardano Khayyam failed to reach explicit algebraic formulas, but he expressed the hope that an explicit solution would be found in the future.

In A Treatise on the Interpretation of Obscure Propositions in Euclid, written around 1077, Khayyam considers irrational numbers to be quite legitimate, defining the equality of two ratios as the successive equality of all relevant quotients in Euclid's algorithm. In the same book, Khayyam tries to prove Euclid's fifth postulate, based on its more obvious equivalent: two converging lines must intersect.

Khayyam also suggested new calendar- more accurate than Julian and even Gregorian. Instead of the cycle "1 leap in 4 years" (Julian) or "97 leap years in 400 years" (Gregorian), he chose the ratio "8 leap years in 33 years". In other words, over a period of 33 years, there will be 8 leap years and 25 common years. This calendar more accurately than any other known corresponds to the year of the spring equinoxes. The project of Omar Khayyam was approved and formed the basis of the Iranian calendar, which has been operating in Iran as an official one since 1079.

Khayyam's students were such scholars as al-Asfizari and al-Khazini.

32. Italian humanists XV - XVI centuries. believed that the best way of education - the study of classical Greco-Roman culture.

As a model, Italian thinkers considered the pedagogical ideas of Quintilian. For example, they were addressed in the 20s. 15th century Vittorino da Feletre And Battista Guarini.

Among the Italian humanists of the Renaissance stands out Tomaso Campanella(1568-1639). A rebel and a heretic, he spent 27 years in prison, where he wrote a number of treatises, including The City of the Sun. In this utopia, a model of a society of economic and political equality is drawn. The treatise outlines pedagogical ideas, the pathos of which lies in the denial of bookishness, a return to nature, the rejection of narrow specialization, in the encyclopedism and universalism of education.

Young tanning salons are free from such vices as laziness, boasting, cunning, thieving, cheating. In the city of the sun, they care about the improvement of the "breed of people", as they are convinced that this is the basis of the public good. It encourages science, the study of history, traditions and customs. Solariums are instilled with love for art, for everything beautiful, for the natural beauty of a person. Thanks to proper upbringing, residents are distinguished by excellent health and external attractiveness. The head of the state is the most educated, enlightened citizen.

Girls and boys study together. They are taught reading, writing, mathematics, history, geography and natural science, they are taught crafts, children go in for gymnastics, running, discus throwing, games. Until the age of seven, children study their native language, do physical exercises, from 7 to 10 years old they add the study of natural sciences, from 10 years old - mathematics, medicine and other sciences. It was proposed to enliven learning through visualization: the city walls are painted with "the most excellent painting, reflecting all the sciences in a surprisingly harmonious sequence ... Children easily and as if playing get acquainted with all the sciences in a visual way before they reach the age of ten." The principle of competition is widely used. Those who succeed in science and crafts are highly respected. The manual "Wisdom" is used as a textbook, where scientific knowledge is concisely and accessible.

Solariums are brought up in the spirit of religion "as the law of nature". Their god is the sun, nature.

Campanella emphasized the obligatory participation of children in socially useful work. In the workshops and in the fields, they get practical skills, get acquainted with the tools of labor, work together with adults.

The ideas of the Renaissance from Italy penetrate into neighboring France. The University of Paris becomes a hotbed of ideas of humanism. From here they spread to Central and Northern Europe. Among the representatives of the French Renaissance who influenced the development of pedagogical thought and school practice, Guyom Bude (1468-1540), Pierre Ramus (1515-1572), Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) and Michel Montaigne (1533-1592) stand out. Guyom Bude And Pierre Ramus took the initiative to revise the education program. Thus, Bude linked the content of education with the economic and political life of the country, suggested using the study of classical languages ​​to learn moral lessons. The updated program of scientific-real education was compiled by P. Ramus. He wrote school textbooks on ancient and new European languages.

F. Rabelais caustically and witty denounced the vices of medieval education and training and at the same time drew the ideal of humanistic education, the main goal of which is the spiritual and bodily development of the individual. Rabelais criticized the inhumanity of upbringing methods, the inefficiency of teaching at school. With frank contempt he wrote about the dogmatic study of religious texts.

Gargantua is a hero novel of the same name Rabelais - forgets like unnecessary trash everything that theologians taught him. The educator cares about how to make Gargantua a strong, versatile, educated and educated person. Reading serves as food for instructive conversations. Gargantua studies Latin, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. This is done in game form(for example, Gargantua learns to count by playing cards). Mental activities alternate with games, physical exercises in the air, gymnastics. He rides, fences, wrestles, swims, lifts weights. They have conversations with the pupil that help to find out true life: about bread, wine, water, salt, etc. In the evenings, Gargantua examines the starry sky, On rainy days, he cuts firewood, threshes bread, visits artisans and merchants, listens to pundits. Sometimes he spends whole days in nature.

Michel Montaigne in his main work "Experiments" considers a person as the highest value. He believes in his inexhaustible possibilities, treating with a great deal of skepticism towards

divine providence. According to the apt remark of the French historian of pedagogy J. Champeau, Montaigne "prefers to take off his hat to God, but not to kneel." Montaigne sees in a child not a reduced copy of an adult, as was believed in medieval pedagogy, but a natural individuality. A child from birth has a primordial purity, which is later "corroded" by society. According to Montaigne, the child turns into a person not so much due to the knowledge gained, but by developing the ability to make critical judgments. Sharply criticizing the medieval school, he figuratively wrote that it was a "real prison", from where the cries of tormented children and teachers drunk with anger were heard. Evil and aptly condemned Montaigne hypertrophied verbal training ("blow in the ears, as if pouring water"). According to Montaigne, traditional education is of little use: "Most of the sciences that we do are not applicable to business."

Reflecting on what education and training should be, Montaigne advised that "the student speaks more and the teacher listens more." Students should be taught to explore the world so that they "verify everything, and not assimilate on faith or out of respect for authority." Montaigne warned against futile attempts at encyclopedic education ("one cannot teach much"). It is useful to establish a variety of connections between students and the outside world - with representatives of the scientific world, smart and benevolent friends. In the course of training, one should be introduced to spiritual values, which are contained primarily in antiquity.

Among those who deserved the memory of a grateful humanity, one can name the English thinker Thomas More. Mor gained fame as a humanist scientist, a poet and an exceptionally honest person. Lord Chancellor, he was executed for refusing to go against his religious-political convictions.

In his main work "Utopia" T. More described the ideal society and outlined his own views on education and training. The central place in his utopian theory is occupied by a harmoniously developed personality. The purpose of creating social institutions in such a society is to give everyone the opportunity to develop their spiritual powers, to engage in "the study of sciences and arts." In a person, social and personal qualities are especially emphasized: modesty, virtue, diligence, kindness.

Man, according to More, "was born for happiness, no one can be so stupid as not to feel the desire for pleasure." This judgment contains a protest against religious asceticism.

T. Mor built moral education on religious principles (priests should "instruct in manners"). A devout Catholic, however, he is far from religious fanaticism. In Utopia, the humanist scholar asserted freedom of religion.

The upbringing of high morality is considered by him as a paramount social task. It should be educated in the spirit of morality, which meets the interests of society and each person individually. It is important in this regard, for example, to get rid of the feeling of vanity in children: "The more difficult it is to pull out this weed grass, the sooner we must start weeding."

Thomas More rejected the cruelty and rudeness of medieval education. In the poetic message "To my beloved children" he writes: "I gave you a lot of kisses, but few beatings."

Believing that the mind is able to guide a person throughout life, T. More is looking for ways to arm the human mind with knowledge. Only an educated person is able to achieve happiness. “The abilities of the Utopians,” he wrote, “refined by the sciences, are surprisingly susceptible to the invention of arts that promote the conveniences and blessings of life.”

More emphasized the obligatory participation of children and adults in physical labor. Work does not prevent utopians from attending classes, listening to music, and conducting scientific research. They predict the weather, make progress in mathematics, dialectics, music.

Men and women of "Utopia" receive an equal education, for "nature equally favors all." Thomas More saw the stability of society in universal education. In Utopia, such education is carried out in public schools.

lah. Opponent of the scholastic system of education, T. More emphasized that school education should be based on practical experience.

More paid special attention to the problem of women's education.

He valued learning in a woman, combined with her inherent virtues. “When a female creature combines even a little knowledge with many laudable virtues, then I put her above the treasures of Croesus and the beauty of Helen ... The difference in sex in terms of learning does not matter, since when the harvest comes, it is completely indifferent whether the seeds are sown by the hand of a man or women Both men and women are equally capable of those activities that perfect and fertilize the mind, like the soil in which the seeds of wisdom are sown.

There was a huge contradiction between the ideals of the Renaissance and the real conditions of European upbringing and education. Undoubtedly, the ideas of the Renaissance (the nature-consistency of education, the democratization of the education system, the enrichment of the content of education and upbringing, etc.) had a beneficial effect on the development of the school and pedagogy. However, they could not be fully implemented. Often these ideas were utopian in nature. A number of pedagogical ideas of the Renaissance were simply emasculated. This is exactly what happened during the distribution in the first half of the 16th century. so-called installations philological education. The interpretation of humanistic education as a program of spiritual, social, physical development of the personality was limited to acquaintance with a part of classical literature, the study of Latin grammar, and the development of sophisticated eloquence skills.

33. French Renaissance humanism is represented by the name of François Rabelais (1494-1553). A writer, humanist, a bright and extraordinary personality, he was born into the family of a lawyer, received an excellent education in a monastery, led the life of a wandering scientist, studied ancient languages, archeology, law, natural sciences, medicine, received a doctorate in medicine, last years life was a priest. A very accurate description of the contradictory character of F. Rabelais, which determined the originality of his pedagogical views, was given by E.N. Medynsky: “A man who all his life was afraid of being burned at the stake, and at the same time openly mocked religion. A man who rebels against the church and twice begs Pope Paul III for remission of his sins and apostasy; first a monk, then a sworn enemy of monasticism and a white priest, then a doctor, a great old man of the Renaissance, finally a priest again; encyclopedist by education - philologist, physician, archaeologist, lawyer and natural scientist; an author whose books are sometimes published under the auspices of the king, sometimes banned by parliament, but have tremendous success among the bourgeoisie of that time; writer, in the first books of which a passionate thirst beats healthy life, unbridled fun and hope for improvement social life by using royalty, and in the last parts of his novel deep disappointment shows through; a writer with deep ideas and, in particular, with the best pages of world pedagogy; the largest teacher proclaiming the bottle as the god of the whole world and the inspirer of all culture; sometimes revolving in the royal circle, sometimes forced to flee from France - such is always restless, full of hobbies, extreme exaggerations, doubts and contradictions of Rabelais.
F. Rabelais expressed his pedagogical ideas in his novel “Gargantua and Pantagruel”, in which he sharply condemned the medieval school for its formal and purely verbal character, for scholastic teaching methods and opposed it with the program of education of a “free and well-behaved person” of the Renaissance. The pedagogical theory of F. Rabelais was based on his belief that a person by nature, regardless of origin, is predisposed to goodness, therefore humanistic values ​​can be reflected in education and passed on from generation to generation. F. Rabelais expressed his ideals of new upbringing and education, describing the upbringing of the hero of the novel: the whole day is divided into a system of classes alternating with games and physical exercises. The leading place in the curriculum is given to ancient and new languages, which open the way to understanding the works of ancient authors, scientific analysis of biblical texts. Therefore, in the novel, Gargantua studies Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew, "ignorance of which is unforgivable for anyone who wants to be known as an educated person." An important place in education is given to the natural-scientific knowledge of man and nature on the basis of the "seven free arts". F. Rabelais was a supporter visual methods learning, therefore the main way of mastering knowledge is the direct observation of a young person of the world around him.
F. Rabelais developed the idea of ​​individual education, since education, carried out through individual lessons of an educator with a student, makes it possible to solve the problem of combining education and moral education. Rabelais attached special importance physical education, which required a combination of physical exercises with vigorous activity and the development of crafts. His hero “threw a spear, a dart, a bar, a stone, a horn, a halberd, pulled huge crossbows with muscle strength, aimed at the eye from a musket, pointed a cannon, shot at a target. He swam in deep water face down, supine, on his side, with his whole body, his arm outstretched, he climbed like a cat on trees; hunted, jumped, fenced. The teacher put forward the requirement of alternating study and rest, physical and mental activities. Later, the global ideas of F. Rabelais were developed in the theories of M. Montaigne, Ya.A. Comenius, D. Locke, J.-J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi and others.

34.Education and training among the ancient Slavs. The East Slavic tribes, who have long lived on the territory of the European part of the USSR, have gone, like all peoples, a long way historical development from the time of prenatal society to the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the division of society into classes.
The upbringing of the children of the Eastern Slavs under the primitive communal system was characterized by features characteristic of other primitive peoples. It was carried out through the direct participation of children in the entire daily life of the community, in labor activity according to age, in the accompanying rites, festivities, cult acts, etc. At the same time, rituals and customs associated with the veneration of the land-nurse, bread, elders and ancestors were assimilated first of all.
Children were brought up by the entire tribal community: at an early age up to 7-8 years old - by women, and then boys and young men - by men, and girls and girls - by women. There is reason to believe that the ancient Slavs, like other peoples, had a division of people into age groups, and from the period of the late matriarchy there were youth houses, in whose activities an important place was occupied by preparation for "initiations" (initiations) into the next age group.
With the advent of the paired family, there was a change in the public upbringing of children. family education. The family, headed by the father, became a mass body for the upbringing and education of children. Children inherited the occupations of their parents - agriculture, hunting, cattle breeding, crafts.
By directly participating in the entire life of the family, children acquired the practical skills and abilities they needed, assimilated views, ideas and concepts, moral requirements and norms. Training in crafts and arts, such as fine arts, was carried out by individual skilled craftsmen. At pagan sanctuaries, some children could learn the simplest ancient (pictographic) writing. There is evidence that in the 8th century the Slavs used the ancient form of writing, “features and cuts”, that is, a kind of pictographic writing.
In connection with the class stratification of society, unequal education appears for children of different social strata. So, according to the evidence of the annals, in the 10th century, special persons appeared in princely houses for the upbringing and training of princely children, including the art of war.

Education, private education and schools in the Kiev state. In the 6th-8th centuries, the necessary prerequisites for the formation of early feudal relations were created in the ancient Slavic society, and at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries, the largest early feudal state in Europe, Rus', with its center in Kiev, arose, which lasted until the onset of a period of feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar conquest.
The creation of a powerful political union that united numerous tribes under the rule of the Kievan princes, settled in a vast territory from the Carpathian Mountains to the Urals and from the Black Sea to the White Sea, created favorable conditions for the development of high culture, enlightenment, new forms of education and training in the Kievan state.
The process of strengthening class relations and the feudalization of Rus' was facilitated by the baptism of the population carried out by the Kyiv princes in 988. Christianity, adopted from Byzantium and turned into the state religion, was the most important ideological means of establishing the feudal system.
Of great importance for the development of culture and education was the further strengthening close ties with Byzantium, which was the heiress of ancient culture. The assimilation of a new culture took place in Rus' in a creative way on the basis of the established ancient Slavic traditions and taking into account the demands of its time.
For its political purposes, the princely power sought to create a national church independent of the Byzantine clergy. Therefore, the princes began to act energetically in the field of training the clergy. The state also needed literate people for the sphere of government.
For the further development of ancient Russian culture and education, the introduction of an improved alphabet (Cyrillic alphabet), created on the basis of the alpha-sound Greek alphabet, taking into account the phonetic system of the Old Slavic language, was important. The proximity of the new alphabet to the speech of the Eastern Slavs contributed to the strengthening of the linguistic community of a single ancient Russian people and the development of literature and language. All this was of great pedagogical importance, it made it possible to organize literacy training in the native language, to use works of oral folk art in the education of children, and to ensure the spread of literacy among the democratic strata of the population.

First schools. The chronicle under the year 988 indicates that after the baptism of the people of Kiev, Prince Vladimir began to build churches, appoint priests, gather the children of noble persons (mainly from among combatants) and "give a start to book teaching." Under the year 1028, the chronicle notes that Prince Yaroslav in Novgorod "collected 300 elders and priestly children to teach books." Prince of Smolensk Roman Rostislavovich organized a number of schools. Galician prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (XIII century) started schools and ordered monks to teach children in monasteries.
At the end of the 11th century, a women's school was established in one of the women's monasteries in Kyiv, where girls were taught to read, write, sing and sew. In Suzdal, a women's school was also established in the 13th century. Based on these and other data, it can be assumed that in the Kievan state in the 10th-13th centuries, schools were established at churches and monasteries to train the clergy and literate people needed by the state.
At the court of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, there was an advanced school where many cultural figures of that time received a serious education, went through a "book teaching": writers, chroniclers, translators and copyists of books, preachers and educated "scribes".
An advanced school is known, organized in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery for the "book teaching" of the monks. Several dozen representatives of the higher clergy came out of this school.
Children ordinary people brought up in a family. They were taught agricultural labor, housework. Children were given to the masters to learn some craft; some, along with the craft, were taught reading, writing and church singing by the "master of letters" from the clergy. So, in the epic about the Novgorod youth Vasily Buslaev it is said that his mother
Gave him to teach literacy,
the diploma went to him in sciences;
made him write with a pen,
a letter to Vasily went to the sciences;
she gave him to sing to teach -
singing to Vasily went to science.
Other epics also testify to the literacy of the heroes, who, apparently, more often studied with the "masters of literacy."
Monuments of pedagogical literature of the XI-XIII centuries. "Instruction of Prince Vladimir Monomakh to children". In the Kievan state in the 11th-12th centuries, a number of manuscript collections appeared, translated and original, among which there were texts and statements of pedagogical content.
The collections under the names "Bee", "Izamragd" (i.e., emerald), "Izbornik" by Svyatoslav, "Zlatostuy", "Chrysostom" (nicknamed by the Greek church writer and preacher John Chrysostom) contained statements and texts of Socrates, Democritus, Aristotle. Svyatoslav's Izbornik contains, for example, a serious mathematical treatise by Aristotle and an original pedagogical essay by a Kyivian on the method of reading.
In the pre-Mongolian period in Rus', original educational manuals were created, such as “Teaching them to know the numbers of all years for a person.” It was compiled by Kirik Novgorodets and is an outstanding medieval treatise of high mathematical and literary merit.
In the famous "Russkaya Pravda" (XI century) - a legal monument of Kievan Rus - mathematical problems were found, representing in the aggregate a textbook for acquiring skills in computational practice and economic calculations. They were made using a counting device such as the Greek abacus. On the Old Russian abacus (the prototype of later accounts), small objects (for example, cherry and plum pits) set aside numbers in levels going in parallel rows from bottom to top: on the bottom - ones, on the middle - tens, then - hundreds, etc.
The pedagogical literature of that time contains advice on raising piety in children, on honoring parents and elders, advice to parents on how to ensure physical growth and health, moral and mental development of children, keep them in strictness, apply corporal punishment in case of disobedience, educate strictly, but also kindly.
The original pedagogical monument of the 12th century is "Instruction of Prince Vladimir Monomakh to Children". The clever statesman Vladimir Monomakh gave his children advice on how to live, urged them to love their homeland, protect it from enemies, be active, hardworking, and brave. He pointed out the need to instill courage and courage in children and at the same time to be humane, responsive to people, to be defenders of orphans and widows, not to let the strong destroy a person, to be respectful to the old, friendly to peers. God must be pleased not by hermitage, not by monasticism, not by fasting, but by good deeds. Addressing people, Vladimir Monomakh advised them to study, referring to his father, who knew foreign languages. He gave his advice to everyone who "accepts his grammar in his heart."
Enlightenment and education reached a high level in the Kievan state thanks to the efforts of a single ancient Russian people, which broke up during the period of the Mongol-Tatar conquest into three independent peoples: Great Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, who forever retained the memory of the former unity and always gravitated towards it.
Awareness of the unity of origin, historical and cultural community predetermined to a large extent the development of education, school and pedagogical thought among these peoples in the XIV-XVII centuries.

Enlightenment and education in Rus' in the XIII-XV centuries. The development of culture, which stood so high in the Kievan state, was slowed down in the 13th-14th centuries due to the growing feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. Cities and villages besieged by the invaders burned, numerous cultural values ​​were destroyed, including manuscripts of collections, teachings of a pedagogical nature.
However, even under these difficult conditions, Russian culture continued to develop, especially in those principalities that were either not invaded or were not severely devastated. First of all, such were the vast and rich Novgorod land, the Tver and Vladimir principalities, and the Moscow principality, which gradually began to grow stronger and rise.
Novgorod was an economically strong and politically independent trading city. Correspondence of books was widely developed in it and there were many book scribes. Not only representatives of the clergy, but also secular people hired scribes to copy books. The profession of "scribe" was registered in the scribe books as one of the numerous professions of Novgorod artisans. These "scribes" received training, as a rule, in their families: the youth were taught by their fathers - professional scribes. Occasionally, strangers were allowed into such a family "for training" for a fee.
Handwritten books were sold not only in rich boyar houses, but also among the common people, which testified to the wide spread of literacy. Novgorod and Pskov scribes liked to make all sorts of additions from themselves to the text. Masters and craftswomen put their signatures on handicrafts.
Archaeological excavations carried out in Novgorod have discovered big number letters, letters and other documents written on birch bark dating back to the 12th-15th centuries. Most of the letters found are private correspondence of ordinary Novgorod citizens. The letters were scratched on the birch bark with a bone sharp stick - "writing". These letters are convincing confirmation of the significant spread of literacy in the cities and villages of the Novgorod land, and, moreover, not only among men, but also among women. Later, birch bark letters were also found in other cities of Rus': Pskov, Ryazan, Smolensk.
Archaeologists have found several birch bark letters written by the Novgorod boy Onfim. The collection of letters of the schoolboy Onfim (writing off the text, dictations, an unsent letter to a peer, etc.) make it possible to quite clearly present the current methodology for teaching writing, reading and counting.
Here, in Novgorod, a wooden alphabet was found - a board with 36 letters of the Old Russian alphabet scratched on one side. Such alphabets were made by artisans and sold at an affordable price.
Learning to write began with scratching on a waxed board with a “writer” the elements of letters - sticks, crossbars, ovals, and then letters. On the letters of the schoolboy Onfim, one can see how they switched to writing syllables and combining syllables into words and then into sentences. After acquiring the skills of writing on boards, they moved on to writing on birch bark. Several "birch bark" were sewn into "notebooks".
Teaching children to read was carried out by the subjunctive method. The method of reading books was reflected in Svyatoslav's well-known "Izbornik" (1076) "Word ... about books"; when teaching reading and writing, works of oral folk art were widely used: proverbs, sayings and riddles.
When mastering the account, they started with counting on the fingers, then they studied the alphabetic symbolism, which denoted numbers among the Slavs. Many of the found birch bark letters are exercises in writing numbers.
The manuscripts of the most ancient alphabet books, dictionaries of the encyclopedic type, compiled in Novgorod in the 15th century, have survived to our time. One of them contains an interpretation of 350 words found in the scriptures, taken from Greek, Bulgarian and other languages. These dictionaries give reason to believe that there were a significant number of readers who needed such reference books when reading books on their own.
Novgorod was the center of the so-called "heretical" movements. In those days, the political movements were mostly theological "heresies". characteristic feature Novgorod "heretics" was their high literacy. In the collections of handwritten books of the Novgorod heretics there were works on astronomy, natural science, and even on philosophical and theological issues, which testified to the great erudition of their owners.

"Masters of Literacy". In the 13th-14th centuries, there were literacy schools attached to monasteries and some churches. So, a miniature depicting a school in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery has been preserved. But neither the princes nor the church opened a sufficient number of schools, did not satisfy the growing need for the training of literate people, and the masses used the services of "literacy masters" for this.
Literacy masters appeared in the Kievan state in the 12th century. In their “housing” or “on the side”, in the homes of their parents, they taught children to read, write and count for a fee. In the XIII-XIV centuries, learning from the "masters of literacy" became more frequent. Groups of boys studying with one "literacy master" became more numerous (8-12 people), that is, they already constituted a real school.
"Masters of literacy" were deacons and "worldly" people who were engaged in teaching children as an additional (for example, to any craft) or even the main profession. Some "masters of literacy" had a profession, as it is said in one "life", "to write books and teach students literate tricks." A small number of "masters of letters" were, so to speak, of an increased type. They taught individual students (probably from more prosperous families) not only reading and writing, but also "verbal sciences" and even mathematics.
The Church, which sought to monopolize education and upbringing in its hands, although it was forced to use the services of "masters of literacy", generally had a negative attitude towards their activities, since these secular teachers were often in opposition to orthodox Orthodoxy, which became clear during the period of "heretical" performances in Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow (XVI century).

Enlightenment, school and pedagogical thought in the Russian state in the XV-XVI centuries. In the XV-XVI centuries, on a vast territory occupied by isolated Russian principalities, the process of formation of a single centralized Russian state was going on. At this time, there is a development of commodity-money relations, crafts and crafts, the growth of cities, culture and education. At the same time, the enslavement of the peasantry is proceeding at an accelerated pace.
The Moscow principality becomes the head of the northeastern lands, which unites the people to fight the Mongol-Tatar yoke. This struggle ended with the complete victory of the Russian army over the khans in 1380.
The struggle for the liberation of the country from foreign invaders and the creation of a unified Russian state were accompanied by the formation of a single Great Russian people, which actively contributed to the growth of culture and education.
Along with the activities of monasteries and princely authorities in the creation of book depositories in Moscow and other principalities, the correspondence of books and the opening of schools, the private pedagogical practice of secular "masters of literacy" is noticeably revived. The activities of some teachers from the common people differed in their content from the enlightenment implanted by the church, the great free-thinking, humanism and rationalism characteristic of heretical movements.
Among such "freethinkers" oppositional works of a humanistic nature are being created at this time.
Thus, at the end of the 15th century, Fyodor Kuritsyn, a member of the Moscow heretical circle, created the humanistic work “Writing about Literacy”, in which he formulated a number of very interesting democratic ideas of anti-feudal and anti-church content.
He spoke out against blind obedience to the requirements of religious dogmas and the fulfillment of church rites. The author called for "autocracy of the soul" and freedom of mind, and argued that the path to this is a conscious, rather than dogmatic study of knowledge. The process of mastering literacy and knowledge is not a mechanical assimilation of the content of books, but a free activity: "Literacy is autocracy." It is the result of the activity of a free soul, free will, free mind.
Possessing the "autocracy of the soul", a person is capable of comprehensive improvement of his moral and mental powers, of knowing the world around him and God himself. Similar ideas contained in the heretical literature created in Novgorod and Moscow in the 14th-16th centuries were in tune with those that were developing at that time in the humanistic literature of Western Europe.

Pedagogical ideas in monuments of literature of the 16th century. The largest monument of pedagogical literature of the 16th century is the first printed in 1574 in Cyrillic letters the Slavic "ABC" (primer book) of the first printer of the "Muscovite", as he called himself, Ivan Fedorov. This educational book, containing an advanced literacy system and elementary grammar, is imbued with humane pedagogical ideas. Characteristic in this regard is the motif chosen by the compiler as headpieces to the texts of the book. They graphically depict the idea of ​​growth, development of a plant with leaves, flowers and fruits, symbolizing the joyful process of developing and raising children, which should be colored. positive emotions teachers and students.
Giving in the second part of his textbook, after the alphabet and grammar, texts to consolidate and develop writing and reading skills, the author places not only prayers and religious instructions. He selects various sayings in which he asks to bring up children "in mercy, in prudence, in meekness, in long-suffering, accepting each other and granting forgiveness."
The ideas of I. Fedorov, his system of education were then used in other Russian educational books - primers and alphabets.
The 16th century also includes a collection of instructions on life, housekeeping and raising children in the family - “Domostroy”, which taught how to “live in truth and not live in falsehood”, and contained advice on home “organization”. A number of chapters of Domostroy (“How to raise your children in all punishment and the fear of God”, “How to teach children and save them with fear”, etc.) are entirely devoted to the issues of raising children.
"Domostroy" requires the upbringing of children in the "fear of God", the performance of religious rites, unquestioning obedience to elders, speaks of severe discipline, and advises the use of corporal punishment. But along with the requirements of strictness and severity in relation to children, Domostroy calls on parents to love children, take care of them normal growth and development, requires the education in children of courage, perseverance, diligence, thrift, thrift, "knowledge" (i.e., polite treatment)

35Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053-1125, Grand Duke of Kiev from 1113) undoubtedly belongs to the most significant figures of the Russian Middle Ages. His reign essentially ends the era of Kievan Rus and begins new stage Russian history, called the specific period, or, in Soviet historiography, the period of feudal fragmentation. And it was Monomakh - and even before he ascended the "golden" Kiev table - that he had to work out the principles that formed the basis of the new political structure of Rus'.

But Vladimir Monomakh went down in Russian history not only as a statesman and commander, but also as a writer and thinker. He is the author of the famous "Instruction" - an outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature and social thought, as well as a letter to Prince Oleg of Chernigov. It is likely that other works written by him were also preserved in Russian literature (it is known, for example, that the prince addressed the Metropolitan Nicephorus of Kiev with a "question" about the "rejection of the Latins"), but they did not reach our time.

The biography of Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich is known to us relatively completely - thanks to the annals, as well as his own writings, especially the Teaching, which is largely autobiographical in nature.

Marc Fabius Quintilian

Marc Fabius Quintilian(35 - 96 years) - orator and theorist of oratory, a major representative of pedagogical thought. For 20 years he maintained a rhetorical school, which was widely known in the Roman Empire. In his main and only work, which has come down to our days, “Instruction in Oratory”, Quintilian formulated the basic methods and techniques of oratory, revealed the issues of education of the future speaker. Developing the issues of education of the future orator, he touched upon a number of pedagogical problems that received a wide response in the pedagogy of the 16th - 18th centuries. This book characterizes the works of many Greek and Roman poets and prose writers.

In his work, Quintilian defined rhetoric as "the science of speaking well". Rhetoric, in his opinion, is an art that consists of a natural gift and an exercise in eloquence. Quintilian sets three main goals for the orator: to teach, excite and delight listeners. To achieve this goal, the speaker will help the ability to correctly express his thoughts and skillful pronunciation.

Quintilian was a supporter of the public education of children. He belonged to the progressive idea that all children are smart by nature and need only the right upbringing and training, taking into account their individual characteristics.

“Dumb and unlearnable minds appear as much against the laws of nature as any other freaks and monsters in physical nature, but there are very few of them. The proof of this is that children sometimes give brilliant hopes, which then, over the years, disappear; therefore not

nature is to blame, and lack of education is the cause. I agree that one has more intelligence than the other; it only proves that one can do more than another, but you will not find anyone who has not achieved something with diligence ... "

Quintilian was a supporter of the early (up to 7 years) upbringing of children (“... not a single time in a human life should be let go without attention”, “... how much time is won in childhood, so much will be saved for youth”). At the same time, he found it necessary to warn about the excessively early development of the children's mind ("Precocious minds, like premature fruits, almost never fully ripen"), about the necessary sequence and accessibility of children's education ("Like small and narrow-necked vessels cannot take a lot of water at once, but are filled gradually, drop by drop, one should also judge children's minds: what surpasses their concepts will not go into their minds, which are still little capable of assimilating knowledge”) 1.

Quintilian attached great importance to the development of a child's speech from an early age. The study of language and music, in his opinion, contributes to the development of good pronunciation, improves the style of speech, makes it more expressive.

Quintilian drew attention to the need for a correct speech environment for the child, to the timely elimination of his defects in sound pronunciation. He wrote: “... first of all, you need to make sure that the nurses do not have a bad pronunciation or a spoiled dialect ... Although morality should be respected most of all, it is necessary that they speak purely. The child hears his nurse first of all, and tries to pronounce his words according to her speeches ... So, you need to watch that the child, at a tender age, does not get used to such a reprimand or dialect, from which it will be necessary to wean later.

Elsewhere we read that it is necessary, “firstly, to correct defects in pronunciation, so that the child pronounces the words clearly, so that each letter gives its own sound. There are letters that we either very weakly or very strongly pronounce; others are dissatisfied firmly, and we change them to others, the softest and having an affinity with him; somehow: instead of the letter p (r), which even Demosthenes had difficulty pronouncing, we hear X(l) in both Latin and Greek; also c (k) and t (t) are softly transformed into g (g) and d (d). Equally, the teacher should not tolerate the letter s (c) being heard often and with some affectation; observe that the words are not pronounced by the larynx and resound in the emptiness of the mouth ... He must also try to make the children finish the last syllables ... ".

Quintilian's statements cited above touch upon a number of issues directly related to speech therapy. Reading Quintilian, one should pay attention to the fact that he put a slightly different, broader meaning into the word "pronunciation" than is now commonly understood by this term. If now we call pronunciation the purely phonetic side of speech, the ability to correctly pronounce sounds, then Quintilian by this term meant both pronunciation and voice. (As he himself wrote about it: "pronunciation consists of two parts: voice and movement").

Thus, Mark Fabius Quintilian, in his pedagogical writings, was a supporter of the public education of children from an early age, consistent and affordable education children. Important are his indications that almost all children are by nature smart enough and need only education, that all children, without exception, are amenable to training and education.

Quintilian is also a supporter of the early development of speech in children. At the same time, he pointed out that the study of the language and music lessons contribute to their good pronunciation, style of speech and its expressiveness. He recommended to follow in the process of raising children for their clear, correct sound pronunciation; pointed out the importance of the speech environment for the formation of correct speech in a child; spoke about some possible defects in the phonetic side of speech in a child and gave practical advice for their prevention and elimination.

Conclusion

The greatest flowering of Greek culture dates back to the 5th century. BC e. The philosophical teachings of Ancient Greece (materialism and idealism) reflected the sharp class struggle between the slave-owning democracy and the landed slave-owning aristocracy.

The cultural heritage of Ancient Greece was adopted by the Roman Empire, the period of greatest power and flourishing of culture of which dates back to the 2nd century BC. BC e. - I century. n. e.

The works of philosophers, encyclopedists of that time give us an idea of ​​the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. The philosophical, historical, pedagogical and medical writings (Democritus, Plato, Herodotus, Hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Galen, Quintilian, etc.) reflect the views of the outstanding minds of that era on the issues of educating the younger generation, issues of maintaining health, various diseases and necessary measures for their treatment. There are also references in these writings to the education of correct speech, its possible disorders, and the means of preventing and overcoming them.

The attitude to the issues of education and training, the understanding of diseases and their treatment were determined by the materialistic (Democritus) or idealistic (Plato) worldview of the authors. In explaining the origin of diseases and, accordingly, their treatment, the humoral point of view (Hippocrates) and the doctrine of pneuma (Plato, Aristotle) ​​prevailed.

In general issues of education, the prevailing for that time were statements about natural conformity (Democritus, “Nature and education are similar”), about the need to start raising a child from an early age (Plato, Quintilian), about the tasks of a single process of mental, physical and moral education children (Aristotle), the need for labor education, the role of systematic exercises in education (Democritus, Aristotle, Quintilian).

Quintilian, emphasizing the need for consistent and accessible education for children, for the first time expresses the idea that “stupid and intractable minds appear as much against nature as any other freaks and monsters”, that this is rare and that all children are naturally quick-witted and need only the right education and training. Plato owns the first attempt at age periodization, indicating the tasks of education for each age period of a person.

For the development of speech, Plato believed that a special selection of literature was necessary for the child to memorize and tell. Quintilian for the first time draws attention to the phonetic errors of the children's language and recommends educating correct speech in children in the early period of their development (up to 7 years). In this regard, he points to the usefulness of language learning and music lessons for children.

In the writings of Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, thoughts* are expressed about the role of the social environment in the upbringing of children, “Constant communication with bad people develops bad inclinations,” Democritus wrote and therefore warned against bad examples. Plato and Aristotle, in turn, emphasized the important role of the family in caring for the moral education of children. Quintilian first expressed the idea of ​​the need for a favorable speech environment for the formation of correct speech in children.

In the medical literature, the idea of ​​the natural consonance of the treatment of diseases prevailed (Hippocrates: "Nature is the doctor of diseases") and its purposefulness (Aristotle: "Nature does nothing superfluous ...").

In these writings, we already find indications of the dominant role of the brain in all human activity (Hippocrates), a description of the organs and functions of hearing, vision, voice and speech, in particular the tongue and lips (Hippocrates, Aristotle). Galen clarified information about the structure and functions of the brain, the nervous system, and described the mechanism of respiration.

Here, for the first time, attempts were made to scientifically describe individual disorders of hearing, voice and speech, the first attempts to differentiate them. In Hippocrates and Galen, in particular, there are references to such speech disorders (in their translation into Russian) as voice disorders, loss of speech, tongue-tied tongue, slurred speech, stuttering.

Characteristically, speech disorders are considered in a number of other diseases that affect a person, but also as a symptom of some other disease. Therefore, in Hippocrates we find instructions to the doctor when diagnosing any disease, pay attention to the state of hearing and speech of the patient.

The causes of speech disorders, according to ancient doctors, are either excess moisture mainly in the brain or in the organs of speech (Hippocrates), or deficiencies in the structure or functions of the organs of articulation (Aristotle, Celsus). Galen pointed to the possibility of causes of speech disorders of both central and peripheral origin. At the same time, he drew attention to the fact that speech disorders can be either congenital or acquired.

From these views on the nature of speech disorders, peculiar recommendations for their treatment followed: hydrotherapy, massage, surgical intervention (in asclepeions), hot pourings, bloodletting, rinsing, emetic and other means that “expel” and “cleanse the mucus of the head” (Hippocrates) . Along with surgical intervention, Celsus comes across the idea of ​​the apparent need for some kind of speech exercises, because surgical interventions do not always bring the desired effect. Like Oribasius, the encyclopedists Aetius of Amid(527 - 565) and Pavel Eginsky(625 - 690) were the compilers of large works in which they collected and systematized the rich heritage of ancient medicine. These authors also have some references to speech disorders. According to the information collected by I. A. Sikorsky, 1 Antillus (Uv), Aetius Amidsky, Pavel Eginsky considered speech diseases as diseases of the tongue, its frenulum, and outlined various surgical methods for cutting the tongue.

Antillus distinguished three frenulums of the tongue: a middle one and two lateral ones. The shortening of the middle, in his opinion, affects the pronunciation of D, L, R, and the shortening of the side ones affects the sounds P, Rp, K, Ch. Aetius of Amides devoted a whole chapter to the diseases of speech, in which the teachings of Galen are repeated in basic terms. The author reveals the origins of the speech disease only from the suffering of the tongue and, in rather great detail, outlines the surgical methods for treating the disease of speech, namely, cutting the tongue.

In terms of stuttering therapy, Oribasius, in particular, proposed a certain order:

1) pronounce by heart passages of an epic, then a lyrical nature. Moreover, starting with the lowest possible tone, gradually raising his voice and lowering it again; 2) start reading from passages by heart; 3) in speech do deep breath. In the course of therapy, Oribasia has: a low voice, difficult combinations of sounds, speech to the beat, exercises in mental speech, gradual didactic techniques (first under the guidance of a mentor, then in the form of reading and, finally, in the form of conversations), medical conditions the doctor himself was appointed (pp. 237 - 238).

Arab Caliphates. Starting from the 7th century in the countries of the Near and Middle East, a rich and diverse culture of the peoples of the East, called Arabic, arose and developed. The culture of the peoples of the East (the time of the Arab caliphates) inherited the valuable achievements of the ancient Eastern and ancient civilization, which later served as one of the sources of Western European civilization. The period of the greatest flourishing of culture and science of the peoples of the East during the time of the Arab caliphates was the 9th - 11th centuries. The greatest representatives of this period were the encyclopedists Mohammed Al-Khwarizmi, al-Razi, Ibn Sina, Al-Biruni.