Normal urinalysis in pregnant women. General analysis of urine in pregnant women - normal values

How to take tests during pregnancy and learn to understand their results? So that the expectant mother is not afraid of examinations and understands why they are, obstetrician-gynecologist Galina Klimenko gives a transcript of basic tests.

Clinical blood test

A blood test is quite simple and at the same time effective method learn about the state of the body of a pregnant woman.

How to submit?

Blood is taken from a finger in the morning on an empty stomach. The night before, you should not eat fatty foods, it is also advisable to refrain from stress.

Clinical blood test

Reading the analysis

Hemoglobin
During pregnancy, the permissible lower limit of the norm is 110. If the hemoglobin level is lower, the woman has anemia, the child does not receive enough nutrients and oxygen and may begin to lag behind in development. Therefore, with a low level of hemoglobin in a pregnant woman, treatment is required.
platelets
A decrease in the level of platelets (below 180.0) requires an additional study of the blood coagulation system, since it is platelets that help prevent massive bleeding during childbirth
Leukocytes
If their level is elevated (more than 9.0), this may be a sign of infection in a pregnant woman.

If you feel unwell, this is not a reason to refuse to take tests. Contact a paid medical center or laboratory that takes tests at home, and you will receive the results by e-mail.

General urine analysis

Allows you to evaluate the excretory function of the kidneys and the general condition of the body.

How to submit?

Rented morning urine. First you need to hold the toilet of the external genital organs (it is better to close the entrance to the vagina with a sterile gauze swab). The jar for analysis must be clean (special sterile containers are sold).

Analysis of urine

Reading the analysis

Protein in the urine
The presence of protein in the urine can be a symptom of a pregnancy complication - preeclampsia (toxicosis of the second half of pregnancy).
Glucose
The presence of glucose may indicate diabetes pregnant. If you suspect this disease, the doctor will prescribe stress tests to determine the level of sugar in the blood.
Leukocytes
An increase in the number of leukocytes (normal - no more than 4) and the presence of bacteria can be a sign of cystitis or pyelonephritis - inflammation of the bladder and kidneys during pregnancy.
Ketone bodies
Their presence may indicate that due to severe toxicosis the body lacks nutrients.

Gynecological smear

Analysis of the discharge of the genitourinary organs of a woman.

How to submit?

One day before taking a smear, you can not put vaginal suppositories, douching, otherwise the results of the analysis will be incorrect.

Reading the analysis

Leukocytes
An increase in the level of leukocytes (more than 15) may indicate an inflammatory process in the vagina (colpitis) or cervical canal (cervicitis). Additional bacteriological examination is required.
Gonococci and Trichomonas
Normally, they should be absent. If they are found, the expectant mother will need to undergo a course of treatment.

With urine, end products of metabolism, excess water, salt, some hormones, enzymes and vitamins are excreted from the body. A general urine test allows us to get an idea about the state of not only the kidneys, but also other organs: the heart, liver, and gastrointestinal tract.

Information During pregnancy, a general urine test is given at registration and then before each visit to the doctor.

The result of the study largely depends on the correct observance of the conditions for collecting urine:

• A day before the study, do not use coloring foods (beets, carrots);
• Stop taking diuretics and other medicines(by agreement with the doctor) also a day before the analysis;
• It is advisable to exclude strong physical activity the day before the study - this can affect the concentration of protein in the urine;
• Immediately before collecting urine, it is necessary to carry out a thorough toilet of the external genital organs, wash the jar well and dry it. The study requires an average portion of urine, a volume of more than 70 ml for a more accurate determination of the density;
• You can store the collected urine for no more than 1.5 - 2 hours.

Interpretation of urine analysis

Physical properties of urine:

Quantity morning urine is usually 150 - 250 ml and does not give an idea of ​​​​daily diuresis. Measurement of quantity is necessary to determine the density of urine.

Color depends on the amount of urine excreted and the amount of coloring pigments. Normally, the color of urine is straw-yellow, it is due to the presence of the urinary pigment urochrome.

Transparency urine reflects the properties of the substances contained in it. Normally, all substances are in solution, so fresh urine is absolutely transparent.

Density (specific gravity) depends on the concentration of substances dissolved in urine (protein, glucose, urea, salts).

Chemical study of urine:

Urine acidityPh is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions H + , which are formed during the dissociation of organic acids and acid salts of inorganic acids contained in urine.

A healthy woman is practically not defined. This is due to tubular reabsorption of the protein filtered in the glomeruli. The detection of protein in the urine is called proteinuria. It can be physiological and pathological. In uncomplicated pregnancy, orthostatic proteinuria (urine protein concentration up to 0.033 g/l) can sometimes be detected. The cause may be compression by the liver of the inferior vena cava and the uterus of the renal veins. TO physiological proteinuria also includes the appearance of protein in the urine after taking a large amount of protein food, after strong physical exertion, emotional overstrain.

Glucose, that got into the primary urine is also completely reabsorbed in the renal tubules, and it cannot be detected by standard methods. Glucose is detected in the urine when its concentration in the blood rises above the renal threshold - 8.8 - 9.9 mmol / l or when the renal threshold decreases (diabetes mellitus).

important Physiological short-term glucosuria can also occur in healthy people with a large amount of carbohydrates in the daily diet, with. Glycosuria in a normal pregnancy is associated with an increase in glomerular filtration of glucose.

Bilirubin in the urine of healthy people is not detected, because only direct bilirubin is able to pass through the glomerular filter, the content of which in the blood is negligible. And in the urine there is a very small amount of it, which is not detected by qualitative samples.

Urobilinogen It is formed from bilirubin in the intestine, which came with bile from the liver. Normally, traces of urobilinogen are found in the urine. Their complete absence indicates a violation of the flow of bile into the intestine.

Ketone bodies Normally, they are absent and appear with an increase in their concentration in the blood.

Microscopic examination of urine sediment:

Distinguish between organized (erythrocytes, leukocytes, epithelium and cylinders) and unorganized sediment (various salts).

red blood cells in the urine of healthy people are absent or are isolated. They do not pass through the glomerular filter and appear in the urine when pathological processes in the kidneys and/or urinary tract.

Leukocytes absent or single in the field of view. (more than 5 leukocytes per field of view) can be aseptic and infectious.

epithelial cells there may be single ones in the field of view, listened to from various parts of the urinary tract: flat (urethra), transitional (pelvis, ureter bladder). The renal (tubular) epithelium is normally absent. By increasing a certain type of cells, the localization of the pathological process is established.

Cylinders - these are casts of the renal tubules of the cellular or protein composition. Hyaline casts, which are composed of protein, may be normal after exercise. Cell casts always indicate the presence of pathology.

bacteria normally absent, but bacteriuria does not always indicate inflammatory process, the number of bacteria is of primary importance.

Salt. The appearance in the urine of crystals of various salts indicates a change in the reaction of urine. Normally, only oxalates and amorphous urates can be present in small amounts.

Normal indicators of general clinical analysis of urine in pregnant women:

Additionally If there are changes in the urine test, a second examination is first assigned for confirmation, and then additional examination methods.

Additional tests (according to indications)

Urinalysis according to Nechiporenko allows a more detailed study of the cellular composition of urine. This study is assigned:

• with changes in the general analysis of urine (the appearance in a large number of erythrocytes, leukocytes, cylinders),
• If you have symptoms of kidney disease,
• as a treatment control.

Table: norm indicators:

The most common reasons for an increase in performance:

Erythrocytes:

• Urolithiasis disease;
• Glomerulonephritis;
• Polycystic kidney disease;
• Complicated pyelonephritis;
• urinary tract infection;
• malignant hypertension;
• Systemic diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitis, collagenoses).

Leukocytes:

• Cystitis;
• Glomerulonephritis;
• Fever of any origin.

Cylinders:

• Preeclampsia, Eclampsia;
• Acute renal failure;
• Glomerulonephritis;
• Pyelonephritis;
• Nephropathy of pregnant women;
• Intense physical activity.

Urinalysis according to Zimnitsky allows you to evaluate the concentration ability of the kidneys. The study is prescribed for kidney diseases, systemic diseases, pregnancy complications ( severe toxicosis gestosis, nephropathy).

To do this, it is necessary to collect urine every three hours in different containers. Three hours before the start of the collection, it is necessary to completely empty the bladder. You also need to record the amount of all fluid consumed. The study evaluates:

• The amount of urine and its density in each portion. Normally, the change in volume can range from 40 to 350 ml. The difference between the maximum and minimum density should be at least 0.012 - 0.015 (for example, 0.015 - 0.028);
• The total amount of urine excreted per day is normally 70 - 80% of the fluid consumed;
• The ratio of daytime and nighttime diuresis. The amount of daily urine is on average 60 - 70% of the daily volume.

Determination of daily diuresis gives an idea of ​​the fluid consumed and excreted from the body. More simple and economical way compared to the Zimnitsky analysis, when it is simply necessary to determine whether fluid accumulates in the body. You just need to measure the amount of all urine per day and write it down along with the amount of fluid you drink and the consumed vegetables, fruits and the liquid part of soups. The water balance is normally 70 -80%. An analysis is prescribed if edema occurs in pregnant women and the treatment of preeclampsia.

Urinalysis for glucosuric profile carried out when glucose is detected in the general analysis of urine and in the presence of diabetes mellitus. For the study, daily urine is collected in three jars: from 8 00 to 14 00 it is necessary to urinate in the first jar, from 14 00 to 22 00 in the second and from 22 00 to 8 00 in the third. The total amount of glucose excreted per day is determined.

Bacteriological culture of urine (bacteriological culture) is carried out to identify and identify pathogens of the urinary system, as well as to determine their sensitivity to antibiotics. For this, urine is placed on a nutrient medium (agar, sugar broth) and the growth of microorganisms is observed. Indications:

• Urinary tract infections;
• Control of ongoing treatment;
• Asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnant women;
• Diabetes;
• Immunodeficiency;
• Suspicion of antibiotic-resistant flora.

For research, an average portion of morning urine (3-5 ml) is taken, collected in a sterile container.

Physiological changes in the urinary system during pregnancy

During pregnancy, the kidneys of a woman work in an enhanced mode, removing from the body not only the products of their metabolism, but also the metabolic products of the fetus. That is why it is necessary to frequently careful observation for changes in the quality, quantity of urine and its cellular composition.

In the first trimester of pregnancy, there is an increase in renal blood flow and a gradual decrease in the future, which makes it possible for other organs to receive additional volume blood. Glomerular filtration increases, and tubular reabsorption does not change throughout pregnancy, which contributes to fluid retention in the body, which is manifested by pasty legs at the end of pregnancy.

With the growth of the uterus, the location of adjacent organs changes. By the end of pregnancy, the bladder moves upward beyond the boundaries of the small pelvis, its walls hypertrophy to resist compression by the uterus. Sometimes there may be a development of a hydroureter (impaired patency of the ureter and, as a result, the accumulation of urine in it), which occurs more often on the right. The reason is that the pregnant uterus turns somewhat to the right, pressing the ureter against the innominate line of the pelvic bone.

Under the action of hormones (mostly progesterone), the urinary tract expands and decreases in tone, which contributes to the development of infection during pregnancy (pyelonephritis).

Urinalysis during pregnancy is an important laboratory diagnostic test. It is according to the results of a general urine test during pregnancy that one can recognize such a formidable pathology as late preeclampsia (preeclampsia) and pyelonephritis, even if there are no clinical manifestations yet. We will consider the importance of a general urine test during pregnancy.

Urinalysis - transcript in pregnant women

When deciphering the result of a urine test in a future mother, the following indicators are evaluated:

1. Color and amount of urine. The amount should be at least 10 ml, while only the average portion is collected. The color of urine should normally be straw yellow.
2. Urine acidity depends on the nature of the diet of the pregnant woman. If the expectant mother prefers protein foods, then the urine reaction will be acidic. If the diet of a pregnant woman contains a large amount of vegetables, fruits and dairy products, then the urine reaction will be alkaline. With a pronounced acid reaction of urine in a pregnant woman, one can think about the development of early gestosis, which is accompanied by nausea and vomiting.
3. The most important indicator of urine analysis is the determination proteinuria. Normally, pregnant women should not have protein in their urine. The appearance of protein in the urine above 0.033 mg indicates kidney damage. This pathology is characteristic of the second half of pregnancy and is called late preeclampsia (preeclampsia). In such cases, the appearance of protein in the urine is combined with an increase blood pressure and peripheral edema. If clinical symptoms preeclampsia progresses, then this is the basis for hospitalization of a pregnant woman in an obstetric hospital. In severe cases, a woman has to give birth by surgery. caesarean section to save the life of a mother and her baby.
4. Leukocytes in the urine of a pregnant woman, from 0 to 5 may be present in the field of view. An increase in the number of leukocytes in the general analysis may indicate an inflammatory disease of the urinary system. The most common cause of leukocyturia is pyelonephritis.
5. Another important indicator of a general urine test during pregnancy is the appearance of bacteria. Bacteriuria is another confirmation of acute pyelonephritis in a future mother. Leukocyturia and bacteriuria may be accompanied by back pain and fever up to 39°.
6. The admixture of salts in the urine(urates, phosphates and oxalates) should normally be reduced in a pregnant woman, since most of it goes to the formation of the baby's skeleton. An increase in these compounds during pregnancy gives reason to suspect a pathology of the urinary system.
7. The appearance of glucose in the general analysis of urine may indicate gestational diabetes mellitus.
8. Ketone bodies should not be normal. Their appearance in the urine test is a confirmation of early preeclampsia or diabetes in a pregnant woman.
9. Squamous epithelial cells and casts may be present in a urinalysis in a single amount. An increase in them may indicate a pathology of the urinary system.
10. Hematuria- this is an increase in the urinalysis of the number of erythrocytes above the norm (0-4 in the field of view).

What should I do if I get bad urine test results in pregnant women?

A poor urinalysis during pregnancy is the basis for a more extensive study. First, you should find out if the woman collected the morning urine correctly and assign her a second analysis. If necessary, a urine test according to Zimnitsky and Nechiporenko is prescribed. To confirm or refute the diagnosis, ultrasonography kidneys.

How to donate urine during pregnancy?

For analysis, morning urine should be collected. First, it is necessary to carry out hygienic treatment of the external genitalia, then collect the average portion of urine in a sterile container. The analysis should be delivered to the laboratory no later than 2.5 hours after receipt.

Thus, we saw that urinalysis during pregnancy is an important screening study that allows you to identify such formidable pathologies as preeclampsia, diabetes mellitus and inflammation of the kidneys and urinary tract.

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THREE IMPORTANT TABLES!!!
SAVE YOURSELF always come in handy!

Very an interesting activity for young parents is the study of the child's analyzes, with their interpretation in accordance with the norms given in the form. Dear, these are the norms, firstly, for adults, and for children normal performance sometimes very different. And secondly, the forms printed a hundred years ago under Tsar Peas and since then have not been edited. Therefore, before dragging your stubborn child to all kinds of doctors, let's see if there is a pathology in the tests.

See our tables and their transcripts!

Urinalysis - what to look for and decoding: Urine analysis in children. How to collect, what to look for

Urine is an aqueous solution of electrolytes and organic matter. The main component of urine is water (92-99%), in which about a thousand different components are dissolved, many of which have not yet been fully characterized. Approximately 50-70 dry substances are removed from the body with urine every day, most of which are urea and sodium chloride. The composition of urine varies considerably even in healthy children, so urine analysis is complicated and requires great care when interpreting the results.

The daily volume of urine and the concentration of certain components in it depends on the intensity of glomerular (in the glomeruli of the kidneys) filtration, the degree of tubular reabsorption and / or excretion.
Indications for the appointment of a urine test:

Diseases of the urinary system;
Screening examination during professional examinations;
Assessment of the course of the disease, monitoring the development of complications and the effectiveness of the treatment;
Persons who have undergone streptococcal infection(tonsillitis, scarlet fever) it is recommended to take a urine test 1-2 weeks after recovery.
Healthy children are recommended to perform this analysis 1-2 times a year.
Rules for collecting urine

In order for the results of a urine test to be reliable, it is necessary to collect it correctly. Only morning urine is suitable for analysis.

First we prepare the container. Wash a small jar with a wide mouth and dry it. You can also use special urinal bags (they are put on the genitals, glued, a diaper is put on top), they are sold in a pharmacy.

The genitals of the child must be clean, the baby must be washed in preparation for collecting urine - do not overdo it, wash it as you usually do. Do not use potassium permanganate, herbal infusions, or other antiseptics.

It is difficult enough to catch the moment of urination in a child under one year old, but many parents know the signs by which you can determine that the child wants to write - the baby is worried, screaming, or, conversely, freezes. It remains only to bring the urinal under the stream. It is preferable to collect a medium portion of urine.

You can not pour urine from the pot, no matter how well it is washed, it is better to put a clean container in the pot to collect urine. You can not squeeze urine out of a diaper or diaper, or even sterile gauze - all this distorts the results of the analysis.

If the child does not want to “pass urine for analysis”, stimulate him to urinate by stroking the abdomen in a clockwise direction, or by the sound of pouring water.

In older children, urine is collected in the same way as in adults: wash yourself, collect an average portion of urine in a clean, dry dish.

Interpretation of urine analysis

When conducting a general analysis, the amount of the collected morning portion of urine has no practical value (well, unless you bring 1 ml of course). The normal amount of urine excreted during the day is highly dependent on age. The amount of urine excreted during the day in children can be approximately calculated by the formula:
600 + 100 (A - 1) = ml of urine in 24 hours, where A is the number of years of the child.

Diuresis increases with the intake of large amounts of liquid, the consumption of products that increase urine output (melon, watermelon), decreases with restriction of fluid intake, increased sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, and in premature babies. Suspect oliguria or anuria in newborns can be in the presence of dry diapers for 12 to 18 hours.

The main indicators studied in urine:

1. The transparency of urine is determined by examining urine in transmitted light. Normal urine is clear. Turbid urine can be with pyelonephritis or cystitis when it contains a large amount of mucus, cells, bacteria and / or salts.

2. Color of urine. Normal in children younger age straw yellow urine. At an older age, it becomes amber-yellow. In children with pyelonephritis, the urine may be more intensely colored, because this disease often reduces the volume of urine due to fever, vomiting, loose stools, and increased sweating. The color of urine may change when taking certain medications and foods. Rhubarb causes greenish urine. When taking riboflavin (vitamin B2), urine acquires an intense yellow color. Urine darkens when standing if the child receives nitrofuran preparations (furagin, furadonin, etc.).

3. Urine reaction. At healthy child Normally, the reaction of urine is slightly acidic, and it may vary depending on the nature of the food. An alkaline reaction is observed when eating plant foods, and an acidic reaction is observed when eating meat. The ability of a child to excrete both acidic and alkaline urine can serve as confirmation of the normal functioning of his kidneys. acid urine(pH 5.5) is often observed in acute diseases of various origins, and neutral and alkaline (pH 5.5) in infections of the urinary tract and kidneys due to the decomposition of urea by bacteria with the formation of ammonia.

4. Relative density (specific gravity). Specific gravity is determined by the content of dissolved substances in the urine, primarily salts and urea. IN normal conditions relative density urine during the day varies from 1008 to 1025 depending on the nature of the food, the amount of fluid drunk and excreted, the age of the child. This indicator characterizes the work of the kidneys for the dilution and concentration of urine. In chronic pyelonephritis, the specific gravity of urine may remain low and monotonous throughout the day, which will indicate a violation of the kidneys.

5. Protein in the urine (proteinuria). In healthy children, there is no protein in the urine when it is determined by conventional methods. Sensitive studies show that the protein is excreted in the urine and in single portions its concentration is not more than 0.033 g / l. In a child with pyelonephritis, protein may be present in the urine, reflecting damage to kidney tissue (renal proteinuria). Protein can enter the urine from the mucous membranes of the urinary tract or vagina - this is extrarenal proteinuria.

6. White blood cells in the urine (leukocyturia, pyuria or pus in the urine). Pus in the urine appears from bursting small pustules that form in the kidney or urinary tract during inflammation. It mainly consists of white blood cells - leukocytes. Leukocytes "eat" microbes (this process is called phagocytosis) and save a person. An increase in the number of leukocytes in the urine indicates an inflammatory process in the kidneys or urinary tract. In the urine of a healthy child, when examining it in the field of view of a microscope, single leukocytes may occur.

Detection in the urine of more than 5-7 leukocytes in boys and 8-10 in girls may indicate an inflammatory process in the urinary tract and kidneys. However, leukocytes can enter the urine from the external genital organs, which is possible in boys with narrowing and inflammation of the foreskin (phimosis with balanoposthitis), and in girls with inflammation of the external genital organs (vulvovaginitis). Inflammation of the external genital organs is manifested by local redness, leucorrhoea and other secretions that stain linen. The suspicion of this process can be resolved by the doctor when examining the external genital organs. If necessary, a urologist is involved in the examination of boys (elimination of phimosis), and girls - a gynecologist, who conducts not only an examination, but also a special study (a smear from the vaginal mucosa) and treatment of vulvovaginitis. With prolonged leukocyturia, the doctor also excludes tuberculosis of the kidneys and urinary tract.

7. Erythrocytes (red blood cells). Erythrocytes in the urine of a healthy child are absent or found in a single number (1-2 in the field of view of the microscope). When red blood cells appear in the urine in excess of the norm, they speak of "hematuria" (blood in the urine). The term "macrohematuria" is used when blood is released in such an amount that the color of the urine changes, it becomes dark red, the color of "meat slop" or "strong coffee". With "microhematuria" the color of the urine does not change, and red blood cells are found when examining urine under a microscope. More than 100 congenital and acquired diseases can cause hematuria. Pyelonephritis, cystitis and reflux are included in this list. Parents can help the doctor in deciphering the reasons for changing the color of urine, since some food plants (beets, blueberries, etc.) or medicines can stain it.

8. Cylinders in the urine. The cylinders are casts of the renal tubules, which are based on coagulated protein, so they appear in the urine with protein. Another condition for the formation of cylinders is the presence of an acidic urine reaction. In alkaline urine, they are not formed or quickly dissolve.

9. Salt. By the presence of salts in the general analysis of urine, one can judge its colloidal state, acidity and other properties. Depending on the acidity of urine, various salts may precipitate: in an acidic environment - uric acid, salts of uric acid and calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, calcium oxalate; in alkaline urine - tripelphosphates, ammonium urate, amorphous phosphates, calcium carbonate and calcium oxalate. The amount of excreted salts can only be determined in daily urine. A precipitate of uric acid is observed with excessive consumption of meat food, heavy physical exertion, fever, fasting, or taking hormones (prednisone).

Oxalates are present in the urine of children who eat foods high in oxalic acid- coffee, tea, nuts, strawberries, black currants, spinach, rhubarb, lettuce. Oxalate crystals may appear with prolonged standing urine. Tripelphosphates and amorphous phosphates are often found in the urine sediment in pyelonephritis and cystitis. For this reason, the presence of salts in the urine does not allow us to conclude that there is a violation of salt metabolism.

The doctor, not the parents, should deal with the interpretation of the urine test.

Clinical blood test in a child. What to look out for and decryption:

Hemoglobin (Hb) is a protein that transports oxygen to tissues and carbon dioxide to the lungs.

Erythrocytes (RBC - Red Blood Cells) - the main blood cells, "containers" of hemoglobin. The size of the containers is determined by the parameter "Average amount of hemoglobin in one erythrocyte". Color indicator - the ratio of the obtained values ​​of the amount of hemoglobin and erythrocytes to normal.

Hematocrit (Hct, PCV - Packed Cell Volume) - characterizes the ratio of plasma volumes and formed elements (blood density)

Reticulocytes - young erythrocytes, are always present in the blood, the amount depends on the body's need for new erythrocytes.

Platelets - the main cells of blood coagulation, are of no interest in the treatment of acute respiratory infections.

Thickening of the blood (lack of fluid) is manifested by an increase in hematocrit and the amount of hemoglobin in the blood.

Leukocytes (WBC - White Blood Cells) are shaped blood cells that represent the immune system. The study of leukocytes allows you to understand the cause of the disease (bacterial, viral or allergic)

Important feature child's body- the number of leukocytes in a child is on average much higher than in an adult (because the immune system is just being formed).

Leukocytosis - an increase in the level of leukocytes above normal. Occurs with acute (especially bacterial) infections, purulent inflammatory processes, oxygen deficiency, etc.

Leukopenia - a decrease in the level of leukocytes below normal. It occurs with viral infections, with severe toxic and infectious conditions accompanied by bone marrow suppression, with some bacterial diseases, radiation sickness, etc.

Leukocytes are divided into the following 9 types:

Neutrophils (Myelocytes, Metamyelocytes, Stab, Segmented) - 4 species;

eosinophils;

Basophils;

Lymphocytes;

Monocytes;

plasma cells.

The ratio of different types of leukocytes (in%) forms a leukocyte formula.

Neutrophils - are especially active against bacteria. The more pronounced the bacterial inflammatory process, the greater their ratio in the formula. Mature neutrophils are called. segmented (a kind of special forces), immature - stab, young - metamyelocytes, and the smallest - myelocytes.

The more active the fight in bacteria, the more stab neutrophils in the blood (“everything to the front”). Metamyelocytes and myelocytes appear only in the most critical cases, when the body is struggling with its last strength.

Basophils - have nothing to do with the topic of acute respiratory infections (normally no more than 1%)

Lymphocytes - participate in immune, are responsible for general and local immunity (detection, recognition and destruction of antigens, antibody synthesis, etc.). The main and most common type of leukocyte in the blood. Lymphocytosis is a sign primarily of a viral infection.

Monocytes - are engaged in phagocytosis (absorption and digestion of bacteria, dead cells, etc.). It lives in the blood for about 30 hours, after which it passes into the tissues, where it matures to a macrophage (from other Greek - a big devourer).

Plasma cells - are responsible for the formation of antibodies (normally 1 per 200-400 leukocytes in children, absent in adults). The number increases primarily with viral infections with damage to the lymphoid tissue (infectious mononucleosis, measles, rubella, chickenpox, etc.)

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, ESR - the value of the column of settled erythrocytes per hour (mm / h). An increase in ESR indicates an inflammatory process in the body (in children, it is normal from 2 to 10 mm / h)

How is a general blood test performed?
A general blood test does not require special preparation. As a rule, the analysis is carried out in the morning, on an empty stomach (or 2 hours after a meal). Blood for general analysis is taken from a finger (usually from a ring finger) using a special sterile instrument - a scarifier. With a quick movement of the hand, the doctor makes a small puncture of the skin of the finger, from which a drop of blood soon appears. Blood is collected with a small pipette into a vessel resembling a thin tube. Less commonly, blood for a complete blood count is taken from a vein.

Biochemical analysis of blood in children. What to look for, decoding.

As a rule, deciphering a biochemical blood test of a child includes eight main indicators.
blood sugar (glucose) and calcium levels;
kidney function test;
balance of electrolytes and body fluids.
When is this analysis done?

This set of indicators is often determined to assess the general condition of the body or for diagnostic purposes. It should also be performed in patients admitted to the department emergency care, as it allows you to quickly get information about possible reason problems and provide appropriate assistance.

Deciphering the biochemical analysis of the child's blood:

Glucose is a sugar that constantly circulates in the blood and is essential for providing the body with energy. Deviations of this indicator from the norm indicate the presence of diabetes or hypoglycemia ( low level Sahara).

Calcium - plays importance in the processes of muscle contraction, transmission of nerve impulses, secretion of hormones. A low or high calcium level can indicate a hormonal imbalance or liver, bone, or pancreas problems.

Sodium, potassium, carbonates and chlorides (electrolytes) help maintain the body's fluid balance as well as the acid-base environment. They are important for the regulation of heart contractions, muscle and brain function. Deviation of electrolyte levels from the norm occurs with the development of diseases of the heart, kidneys or severe dehydration.

Urea in the blood and creatinine are the end products of metabolism and are excreted from the body through the kidneys. An increase in their concentration is a signal of possible problems in the functioning of the kidneys.
Preparation for analysis

In case of emergency, the analysis of the main biochemical parameters can be performed without prior preparation. But in order for the results to give more objective information, the child should refrain from eating and drinking 8-12 hours before the analysis. When going to the doctor, choose clothes for the child that will not obstruct access to the cubital vein.
Procedure

Blood sampling is carried out from the cubital vein by trained medical workers. In infants, blood for biochemical analysis is taken from the heel using a thin needle. The injection site of the needle is treated with an antiseptic. The area of ​​​​the arm above the vein is pinched in order to increase the pressure in the vein and achieve its strong filling. Then a needle is inserted into the vein, through which blood enters a special vessel or test tube.

At the end of the blood sampling procedure, the pressure bandage is removed. The needle is removed after the required amount of blood has been taken. A piece of cotton wool is applied to the puncture site in order to stop the bleeding. The procedure takes no more than a few minutes.

Taking blood from a vein causes temporary inconvenience, the child will feel an unpleasant prick, but strong pain does not occur with this procedure. Most children are afraid of this procedure. Help them. Explain the course of the analysis and its purpose, why the doctor performs this analysis and how the child's well-being will improve after undergoing the correct treatment. Let him ask any questions that interest him to the medical staff. Help your child relax during the procedure. Tension makes it more painful. Take your attention away from the needle, especially when it is being inserted into a vein.

In modern medical institutions a biochemical blood test is performed on special equipment. It allows you to get the result within an hour, but usually there is no need for such a rush and you will have to wait about a day. If deviations from the norm are detected in the results of the analysis, a re-examination is prescribed.

In general, the analysis of biochemical parameters of blood is safe procedure, but in some cases there may be minor complications:
fainting or dizziness;
hematomas (accumulation of blood under the skin in the area of ​​​​a vein puncture).

Table order:
1. Clinical blood test in children
2. The main indicators of a biochemical blood test in children
3. The main indicators of biochemical analysis of urine in children

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Urinalysis is normal

Urinary tract infections are the second most common after respiratory diseases, so people very often have to deal with urine tests. So what should be the analysis of urine and how to read it correctly?

General urine analysis

Below are the norms (in the table):

Indicators

From 4.8 (slightly acidic) to 7.5 (slightly alkaline)

Relative density

Not more than 0.033 g in 1 liter

Presence of glucose

Women: 0-3 in p. sp.

Men: 0-1 in p. sp.

Leukocytes

Women: 0–6 in p. sp.

Men: 0–3 in p. sp.

Presence of epithelial cells

Urinalysis, interpretation of the norm

The color of urine can range from light to a rich shade of yellow. Darkening of the urine can occur with a number of diseases. It may be due to the presence of blood in the urine (for example, with glomerulonephritis), or an increase in various pigments (with various jaundices, hereditary diseases). The color may change after taking certain drugs.

Urine is normally clear and does not specific smell. Relative density can change with insufficient or excessive fluid intake, but also its change may be in favor of some diseases (for example, diabetes mellitus).

Normally, there are no glucose, protein, and also no ketone bodies, bilirubin in the urine. The presence of protein can indicate glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis, and various connective tissue diseases.

Ketone bodies can occur in diabetes mellitus, as well as in acetonemic syndrome in children (often can be on the background of viral infections, gross violations of diets). The presence of bilirubin in the urine most often indicates a problem associated with the liver.

Urinalysis, deciphering the norm of leukocytes

The rate of leukocytes differs in men and women. The norm of urine analysis in women suggests up to 6 leukocytes (Leu), and in a man this figure is 3. An increase in leukocytes above the norm most often indicates inflammation in the urinary tract (pyelonephritis, cystitis, urethritis).

Urinalysis erythrocytes normal

For women, the rate of erythrocytes is up to 3, for men up to 1 (in the field of view). If their number is higher than this, then this indicates the presence of blood in the urine. Most often it is caused by the presence of kidney stones and tumors.

The presence of salts in the urine (most often oxalates) indicates that either a person has kidney stones, or there is a predisposition to their formation.

The presence of cylinders in the urine also indicates various disorders. But it is the presence of hyaline cylinders that can be after ordinary physical exertion.

Urine contraction analysis

The analysis can be written in the form of abbreviated notation, in which case it needs to be deciphered.

These designations may include:

• S.G urine density,
• LEU - leukocytes.

Urinalysis biochemical (normal)

Conducting a biochemical analysis is necessary in some cases in the presence of deviations in the general clinical analysis of urine to clarify violations. Main biochemical parameters are glucose (normally up to 0.05 g per 1 liter), amylase (normally from 10 to 1240 units), sodium (normally within 100 - 260 mmol), potassium (normally from 39.4 to 82 mmol) . Important indicators the functioning of the kidneys are considered creatinine (normal for women ranges from 0.48 to 1.44 g / l, for men a little more - from 0.6 to 1.6 g per 1 liter) and urea (normally 333 - 587 mmol).

Urinalysis (normal) in children

In children, the norms of urinalysis results almost coincide with those in an adult. But at the same time, the specific gravity of the urine of a child is lower than that of an adult, and these indicators change from smaller to larger with the growth of the child, reaching the norm of an adult by the age of 12. Thus, a general analysis of a newborn and a baby (their norm) can hardly differ from the analysis of an aged person.

Urinalysis is normal according to Nechiporenko

An analysis according to Nechiporenko is performed if specific deviations were found in the general clinical analysis. Normally, the indicators should be as follows:

• The number of leukocytes in 1 ml is not more than 2 thousand;
• the number of erythrocytes in 1 ml is not more than 1 thousand;
• the number in 1 ml of cylinders is not more than 20.

Urinalysis (normal) according to Zimnitsky

Analysis according to Zimnitsky shows the total amount of urine that is excreted throughout the day and changes in its specific gravity. Normally, there should be the following patterns: the amount of all daytime urine should be slightly more than the amount at night, and the specific gravity should range from 1010-1025 during the day to 1035 at night.

Urinalysis (normal) during pregnancy

The norms of all urine tests in pregnant women correspond general norms woman's urine test. However, an increase in some indicators may indicate other diseases that occur exclusively in pregnant women, toxicosis, nephropathy of pregnant women, and preeclampsia.

Urinalysis for diastasis normal

This indicator of urine can indirectly indicate pancreatitis, liver disease and other inflammatory diseases. Normally, it can vary between 16-64 units.

Interesting

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Urology: General analysis of urine (decoding of indicators, norm)

Deciphering the indicators of a general urine test

General urine analysis belongs to mandatory diagnostic procedures, which are assigned to all patients who applied to a healthcare institution.

Here we will tell you what indicators of urine are measured in a general urine test, and what diseases are indicated by certain deviations of these indicators from the norm. And also about how to properly collect urine for general analysis, analysis of daily urine and for urine analysis according to Nechiporenko.

In the general analysis of urine, parameters such as specific gravity (relative density), color, transparency, odor, pH (acidity), protein content, glucose content, content of ketone bodies and bile pigments and some other indicators are examined.

The results of the urine test are given to the patient in the form of a table with incomprehensible letters, which can only be read by a specialist. Below is a transcript of those very "incomprehensible letters", as well as the norms and possible deviations for individual indicators.

Deciphering the indicators of a general urine test

BLd - erythrocytes,

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Urinalysis: the norm in adults, decoding of indicators

Physical indicators of the general analysis of urine

First of all, the physical parameters of urine are measured in the laboratory. These include: color, smell, determination of transparency, density and ph. For the convenience of all procedures, urine is stored on a special table with various devices for determining physical properties. There are special standards by which the laboratory assistant can easily see the deviations of a certain urinalysis.

To determine the density, a special device is used - a urometer. It is lowered into a test tube with urine and indicators are easily read. The norm of specific gravity in adults is 1010-1025 g / l. At the same time, the indicators of healthy men and women do not differ.

The laboratory assistant determines the color of urine by eye. The form indicates: straw yellow, brown, red, pink, light yellow. It is the first option that is considered the norm. The change in the color of urine can be affected by taking multivitamins, medications, as well as menstruation.

The smell is determined by sniffing. For example, with diabetes, you can feel the unpleasant smell of acetone.

The transparency of the urine test is determined visually. Sometimes, during long-term storage, a precipitate of salts may form, in which case the decoding of this indicator may be difficult. Turbidity in the urine is usually caused by protein, which is considered abnormal, an indicator of kidney disease.

The pH of urine tests is determined using indicator paper. The strip is placed in a test tube and the color is compared with a special standard. An acidic reaction is the norm for such an analysis. The laboratory assistant carefully notes all deviations in the form so that the doctor can immediately see a bad urine test and prescribe treatment to the patient in time.

Determination of organic substances in urine

When all physical properties urine are determined, the indicators are entered into the form, it is time for organic analysis. Usually, laboratory assistants necessarily determine only glucose and protein, but the doctor can prescribe an extended urinalysis and indicate bilirubin, bile acids, and indican.

All these substances should not be present in the urine of a healthy person. Therefore, the laboratory assistant first of all conducts a qualitative analysis of urine using an indicator strip. If the standard shows that glucose or protein is available, then it is the turn of a qualitative determination of these indicators. It is worth remembering that there may be traces of protein in the urine - this is the norm, because usually this phenomenon is associated with human nutrition.

The appearance of protein in the urine can be triggered by a bacterial infection of the genitourinary system, increased physical and emotional stress, sharp drops the temperature of the environment in which the person is located. The doctor must correctly read all the indicators in order to diagnose the disease.

After conducting a qualitative and quantitative indicator of urine analysis, the laboratory assistant proceeds to microscopy of the sediment. This is the final stage of the research.

Examination of urinary sediment

To obtain a precipitate, the laboratory assistant centrifuges the liquid. This procedure is very fast and does not require any effort or human intervention. The resulting precipitate is placed on a glass slide and carefully examined under a microscope.

The standard analysis includes the determination and quantification of:

• epithelium;

101analyz.ru

Table for deciphering the general analysis of urine in adults

Due to the ease of implementation and the significant information content of the results, urinalysis has become one of the most common types of diagnostic studies. Urine is a physiological fluid formed during the filtration of blood in the kidneys as a result of metabolism in the body. For the most part (about 96%), it consists of water, and the remaining share is the metabolic products dissolved in it (uric acid and urea, mineral salts, etc.). The composition of urine is very sensitive to changes in the state of the body, therefore, based on its analysis, various diseases can be diagnosed. A general urinalysis is prescribed for suspected disorders of the genitourinary system, as scheduled preventive examinations and to monitor the effectiveness of therapy in the recovery process.

Deciphering the general analysis of urine involves a description of urine according to the following indicators: transparency, color, specific gravity and acidity index. Then, the presence of specific substances in the urine, such as protein, glucose, bile pigments, ketone bodies, hemoglobin, inorganic substances, blood cells (leukocytes, erythrocytes, etc.), as well as cells found in the genitourinary tract (epithelium and its derivatives - cylinders). The norms for the content of components in the decoding of the general urine test differ depending on the age of the patient. The subject of the review of this article will be the decoding of the general urine test in adults.

The reliability of deciphering a general urine test depends on the conditions for its delivery, so take seriously the preparation and implementation of the following simple rules. On the eve of the analysis, refuse to eat foods that can change the color of urine (these include beets, rhubarb), as well as medicines similar action (for example, aspirin). If you have been taking diuretics, take a break. When collecting urine, the external genitalia should be sufficiently clean, which will require their careful toilet. Only the middle portion of urine should be collected after a night's sleep. It is unacceptable for women to take a general urine test during menstruation. To transport urine, use special medical containers, the material of which does not enter into chemical reactions with urine, and the container itself is sterile. The closure method and the tightness of the container also have great importance. Long-term storage of urine can distort its physical properties, promote the growth of bacteria in it and the breakdown of salt precipitation, so the collected material should be delivered to the laboratory as soon as possible.

Table for deciphering the general analysis of urine

Deciphering the general analysis of urine in adults can be summarized in the following table.

Name of indicator

urine color

The urine of a healthy person has a yellow or straw color of varying saturation from almost transparent to amber.

A change in the color index in deciphering a general urine test in adults may indicate various diseases. In some cases, urine may be stained with traces of blood. The dark color of urine is indicative of liver disorders (cirrhosis, hepatitis) and blockage of the bile ducts (with a greenish tinge).

All shades of yellow or straw are acceptable

Urine clarity

At normal condition body urine should be clear. If mucus, bacteria, fats, protein or minerals are found in it, the urine becomes cloudy in accordance with the amount of unwanted impurities.

Completely transparent

The smell of urine

The urine of a healthy person has a specific, unsharp odor. A change in the characteristic odor clearly indicates a malfunction in the body. For example, with infectious diseases of the bladder, a persistent smell of ammonia or even rot appears, and with diabetes, the smell of rotting apples.

Neutral, weak

Urine reaction (pH)

This indicator in the table for deciphering the general analysis of urine characterizes the balance of acids and alkalis. The acidity of urine is determined by the composition of food, the amount of water drunk and the general condition of the body. Urine is usually slightly acidic. An increase in the acidity of urine indicates the presence of diabetes mellitus and chronic diseases kidneys. During the course of infectious diseases of the genitourinary tract, the acidity of urine, on the contrary, decreases.

Slightly acid reaction with pH<7

Relative density or specific gravity of urine

The density of urine in deciphering the general analysis for adults varies widely depending on the amount of fluid drunk, the time of day, and the dynamics of the kidneys. In a healthy person, it ranges from 1.008 to 1.024.

Ranging from 1.008 to 1.024 per morning serving

Glucose, protein, bilirubin, ketone bodies

Normal - none

No more than two or three in sight.

Leukocytes

Approximately six to eight cells in the field of view are acceptable

epithelial cells

The appearance of the epithelium in the decoding of the general analysis of urine indicates the exfoliation of the tissues lining the genitourinary system. If there are few epithelial cells, then there is no reason for concern.

Zero to ten in sight

Granular (formed by erythrocytes), epithelial (formed by epithelial cells), leukocyte (formed by leukocyte cells) cylinders occur in the urine due to inflammation of the kidneys. Fatty casts are indicative of chronic glomerulonephritis. In the most common cases, an increase in the number of cylinders indicates inflammatory processes in the kidneys.

Acceptable in small quantities

Present in small amounts or absent

Deciphering the general analysis of urine during pregnancy

Urinalysis is widely used to monitor the health of expectant mothers. Deciphering the general urine test during pregnancy allows you to analyze the physiological state, taking into account its specifics. During pregnancy, the kidneys are under a special load, and the well-being of mother and child largely depends on their functioning.

During pregnancy, this type of laboratory test is performed quite often: during the first and second trimesters - monthly, and in the third every 2 months. A general urine test is indispensable for assessing the functioning of the kidneys, as well as identifying special diabetes in pregnant women.

The table for deciphering the general urine test during pregnancy takes the following form:

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General analysis of urine during pregnancy

Having registered for pregnancy, before each visit to the gynecologist, a woman must give urine for a clinical study, the so-called general urine test. Why do you need to do this?

Urine is formed in the kidneys after filtering the blood. With urine, metabolic products, salts, excess water, as well as some enzymes, hormones and vitamins are excreted from the body. By analyzing urine, one can judge the work of the kidneys and other organs, the normal functioning of which is undoubtedly very important during pregnancy.

During pregnancy, a general urine test is performed in the same way as usual. The analysis determines the physical properties and chemical composition of urine, as well as its sediment.

By studying the physical properties of urine, its quantity, color, density and transparency are evaluated. When studying the chemical composition of urine, its pH is determined, as well as the presence or absence of such chemical compounds as protein, glucose, urobilinogen, bilirubin, ketone bodies. Microscopic examination of the sediment allows you to determine whether the urine contains erythrocytes, epithelium, leukocytes, cylinders, salts and bacteria.

Deciphering the general analysis of urine during pregnancy is carried out according to all of the above indicators. Normally, a pregnant woman has the following indicators of a urine test:

• quantity - 150-250 ml (whole morning portion);
• color - from straw to saturated yellow;
• transparency - absolute;
• pH - from 5 to 7;
• protein - absent or less than 0.075 g/l;
• glucose, bilirubin, ketone bodies (ketones), bacteria - absent;
• urobilinogen - traces;
• epithelium - absent or single cells of transitional or squamous epithelium;
• leukocytes - absent or up to 5;
• cylinders - absent or single hyaline;
• salts - single amorphous urates and oxalates.

If the indicators deviate from the norm, then they suggest various disturbances in the work of the body of a pregnant woman. Some of the most common deviations from the norm will be considered (deciphered) in the next article.

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Clinical analysis of urine during pregnancy: norms and interpretation | Zaletela.NET

How to take urine for analysis?

It is necessary to collect the average portion of the morning (immediately after sleep) urine in a special sterile container for analysis with a plastic lid.

On the eve of sampling, exclude the use of medications (vitamins, diuretics, hormones, antibiotics and other medicines) and coloring foods (carrots, beets, asparagus, cranberries, blueberries, etc.).

The last sexual intercourse should be at least 12 hours before the collection of the urine sample.

First of all, before collecting urine, it is necessary to carefully hygiene the external genital organs. To prevent the vaginal environment from entering the urine sample, it is necessary to cover the entrance to the vagina with a piece of cotton wool or insert a swab. Avoid touching the urine collection container with your body.

When urinating, flush the first portion of urine (1-2 seconds) into the toilet, and then, without interrupting urination, collect the second part of the urine, interrupting at the end of the process and finishing urinating into the toilet. For analysis, you need about 50 ml of biomaterial.

Collected urine must be delivered to the laboratory within 1-1.5 hours. On the jar with the analysis, clearly indicate your last name, initials, date of collection of the analysis and time.

Deciphering a urine test during pregnancy

Laboratory research of this biological fluid includes the determination of its organoleptic characteristics, physicochemical properties, biochemical composition and sediment microscopy.

Norms of indicators of a general urine test during pregnancy

Color

In a healthy person, urine can be straw to deep yellow in color. Often, pregnant women have a bright yellow or orange color of urine, which is due to the intake of vitamins on the eve of the test.

When drinking heavily, the urine dilutes and becomes colorless, and, conversely, when drinking a small amount of fluid or when it is lost (vomiting, diarrhea), the urine becomes more concentrated, dark yellow.

A sign of the disease is most often considered if the urine has a color:

• strong tea (“beer” color) - pathology of the liver and gallbladder, for example, parenchymal (hepatic) jaundice or viral hepatitis;
• pink-red (the color of "meat slops") - inflammation of the kidneys, for example, acute glomerulonephritis;
• greenish-yellow ("lemon" color) - obstructive jaundice (i.e. gallstone disease), the presence or entry of pus into the urinary system;
• dark brown (dark brown) - hemolytic anemia;
• whitish - the presence of a large amount of phosphates or lipids, for example, kidney lymphostasis, fatty degeneration of the kidneys;
• milk - urinary tract infection, cystitis, pyelonephritis.

Transparency

Freshly collected normal urine is ideally clear, possibly slightly cloudy due to the presence of epithelium and mucus.

It also becomes slightly cloudy due to the long standing of the sample, so the collected sample must be delivered to the laboratory as soon as possible so as not to distort the result of the analysis. A small amount of water drunk can also cause cloudy urine in a healthy person.

Severe turbidity of urine is caused by erythrocytes, leukocytes, bacteria, mucus, a significant amount of salts or epithelial cells, etc. Specific gravity

This indicator depends on the amount of substances dissolved in the urine and the water drunk per day.

The relative density (or specific gravity) of the urine of a healthy person is 1003-1035 g / l.

An increase in density occurs with dehydration of the body, toxicosis, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, glomerulonephritis, etc., and a decrease occurs with heavy drinking, nephritis, and renal failure. pH

The reaction of urine in humans ranges from 5.0 (acidic) to 8.0 (slightly alkaline) depending on the diet. The acidity of urine is increased by protein (in particular, meat) products and fats, and the alkalinization of urine is promoted by vegetable products (fruits, vegetables) and dairy foods.

The reaction of urine in a healthy person with a balanced diet is slightly acidic (pH=6.0 and >) or neutral (pH=7.0).

An acidic environment is a good environment for the development of bacteria, so the presence of such an environment all the time is undesirable.

Kidney failure, urinary tract infections, and other diseases affect the increase in pH.

Diabetes mellitus, tuberculosis, fever, severe diarrhea, and other ailments will affect the pH by lowering it. Protein

Normally, there is no protein in the urine, but during pregnancy a slight increase to 0.033 g / l is allowed, which is caused by strong emotional feelings for the health of the fetus, possible overheating in the summer or hypothermia in the cold season, the intake of undenatured protein foods ( raw eggs and home-made unboiled milk), the presence of allergies at the time of the test, and indeed, a strong burden on the kidneys.

Toward the end of the second trimester, a small amount of protein may appear due to mechanical compression of the kidneys by a pregnant growing uterus, but this phenomenon is not permanent, and is not dangerous only if there are no other signs of kidney disease.

Also, protein can be passed into the urine along with vaginal discharge therefore, in order for the result of the analysis to be as accurate as possible, it is necessary to follow all the rules for sampling urine.

The appearance of protein (proteinuria) indicates diseases of the kidneys (pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, nephropathy of pregnant women, etc.), urinary tract (cystitis, ureteritis) or preeclampsia (late toxicosis). Sugar

Normally, sugar in the urine of a healthy person is absent or found in a small amount up to 0.083 mmol / l.

During pregnancy, "traces" of glucose can be detected in the urine. This happens due to heredity (especially with late pregnancy- after 35 years), with obesity, eating high-carbohydrate foods or with severe stress.

In the second trimester of pregnancy, physiological glucosuria is observed, which is due to the normal processes occurring in the body of a pregnant woman. It does not require drug treatment, but nutrition should be adjusted to reduce the amount of carbohydrate food in the diet of a pregnant woman (limit the intake of sweets and starchy foods).

Detection of glucose (glucosuria) is observed in diabetes, kidney and other types of diabetes. Bilirubin

In a healthy person, bilirubin is not found in the urine. But with obstructive jaundice, viral hepatitis and other diseases that cause difficulty in the outflow of bile, the appearance of bilirubin is observed, and the urine turns dark, “the color of beer”. Ketone bodies

During pregnancy, these bodies can be identified in the urine, which indicates dehydration with early toxicosis. But this is not a trifle, ketone bodies poison the body with acetone, so it is necessary to be examined to exclude others. possible diseases(particularly diabetes).

Acetone is most commonly found in the urine with anemia or gestational diabetes pregnant. In such cases, the doctor at the hospital prescribes a dropper and special diet. The main goal is to drink more alkaline mineral water(Borjomi, for example), exclude sweet, fatty foods, reduce protein intake, and vice versa, include more carbohydrate foods in the diet. Nitrites

They are not found in the urine of a healthy person. A positive result indicates the presence of an infection in the urinary tract. Hemoglobin

Normally, there is no hemoglobin in the urine. Usually its presence indicates hemolytic anemia. red blood cells

In a healthy person, erythrocytes in the urine are either absent, or 1-2 cells are found in the field of view.

An increase in the number of red blood cells (hematuria) occurs with kidney diseases and diseases of the urinary system. Leukocytes

To combat pathogens of various diseases, the body produces leukocytes. Normally, in the urine of a woman, 0-5 leukocytes are found in the field of view.

An increased content of leukocytes (leukocyturia) always indicates inflammatory processes in the kidneys - pyelonephritis, urinary tract - cystitis, urethritis or genital organs.

erroneously positive result received by women who neglect personal hygiene and other rules when taking an analysis.

An excessive increase in leukocytes (pyuria) can be detected even with the naked eye: the urine is cloudy, “flakes” and “threads” float in it. This indicates the accession to the inflammatory process of the purulent. epithelial cells

The epithelium lines the mucous membrane of all internal organs. Squamous epithelium is almost always present in the urine sediment of a healthy person in an amount of up to 3 cells per field of view. Their number increases with an infectious disease of the urinary tract.

Another type of cells, transitional epithelium, appears in the urine with cystitis, pyelonephritis, and nephrolithiasis. Permissible presence of the 1st cell of transitional epithelium in the field of view.

The renal epithelium is found in the sediment with an infectious lesion of the kidney parenchyma - pyelonephritis, kidney glomeruli - glomerulonephritis, etc. In a healthy person, the renal epithelium is absent in the urine sediment. cylinders

In case of kidney diseases, protein accumulates in the renal tubules, leukocytes, erythrocytes, exfoliated epithelial cells and other particles “stick” to it. This plastic mass envelops the tubules, cylindrical in shape, from the inside, and thus makes, as it were, their cast. When urinating, these cylindrical casts are washed out and determined by the laboratory assistant during analysis.

Since protein and other elements are excreted in the urine only when pathological condition kidneys, then in a healthy person there should be no cylinders in the sample, only hyaline cylinders can be found and no more than 1-2 in the field of view, an increased content of this species or the presence of others (granular, waxy, erythrocyte, leukocyte, epithelial) is possible only with various kidney diseases. bacteria and fungi

In the analysis of a healthy person, bacteria and fungi should be absent, their presence indicates an infection of the genitourinary system (cystitis, urethritis, candidiasis, etc.). salt

Urine is an aqueous solution of the breakdown products of protein substances and various salts that precipitate. The presence of a certain type of salt crystals in the urine indicates a change in pH in one direction or another. An acidic environment causes the formation of urates, an alkaline environment - phosphates. With normal other indicators of urine, the presence of salts is not considered a sign of any disease.

An excess of salts (urates, phosphates or oxalates) leads to the appearance of stones and, as a result, to the development of urolithiasis.

This happens due to metabolic disorders, unbalanced nutrition.

Precipitation of urates occurs when the body is dehydrated (for example, during a heat wave and insufficient drinking regime, due to profuse vomiting, diarrhea, etc.) or with a predominance of meat food in the diet.

Phosphates appear when eating foods rich in phosphorus (fish, sour milk, oatmeal, buckwheat, etc.).

Oxalates occur in any pH reaction, but with excessive consumption of products containing large amounts of oxalic acid. Slime

The inner lining of the organs of the urinary system constantly secretes mucus. Normally, mucus is absent or found in small quantities.

Increased secretion of mucus indicates insufficient hygiene of the genital organs during the sampling or an inflammatory disease of the urinary system, but in the presence of other signs of pathology.

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