History of cosmetology: from the ancient Greeks to the XXI century. Clinic of plastic surgery and cosmetology of Professor Blokhin S.N. and Dr. Wolf I.A.
The history of cosmetology has at least twenty thousand years. The art of decorating your face and body dates back to prehistoric times - and in ancient times, both men and women used cosmetics equally.
The earliest evidence for the use of cosmetics dates back, astonishingly, to the Ice Age. Mankind made the first steps in the art of decorating itself in the caves of the Stone Age. These experiments just boiled down to painting the body and face and trying to somehow adapt a shell or a pebble.
The ideas about decorating the face and body of each nation were very peculiar. The study of means and techniques for improving appearance, practiced in ancient times, can plunge us into deep bewilderment, scare or laugh. And yet, paradoxically, it can teach a lot. After all, often the discoveries of modern science only confirm what our ancestors reached by experimental and intuitive way. And although today the fashion of past centuries seems strange to us, it served the same purposes as modern ones. cosmetical tools, - decorate, hiding flaws and emphasizing what is considered beautiful.
At the origins of cosmetology lie common sense and functionality. It all started with the realization of the need for personal hygiene, ritual coloring and the desire to stand out.
Ancient Egypt is considered the cradle of cosmetics, where cosmetics have been known for more than 4000 years ago. The first cosmetics handbook was discovered in Egypt and was compiled by Cleopatra. Not so long ago, Italian scientists found the remains of the perfume factory of this queen. Cleopatra and her Egyptian contemporaries dyed their hair and used various incense based on natural substances and herbs. During the excavations, a “beauty parlor” was discovered, which belonged to Egyptian queen Hatshepsut. And the best specialists in cosmetics were the priests. They were the keepers of recipes for making paints, essential oils and incense. It was possible to restore almost two hundred of these recipes. Vessels with ointments and various incense containing frankincense, myrrh, rose and lavender oil. Even then, cosmetics were used both for medicinal and purely decorative purposes.
The fashion of Egyptian beauties has survived to this day - to lengthen the eyes with a dark line along the eyelid towards the temple. The Egyptians used for this a poisonous green pencil made of crushed malachite, later - black paint made from burnt ivory and charcoal. Eyeliner not only by women, but also by men prevented inflammation of the eyelids from the blinding sun and dry wind. One of the world's oldest recipes for eau de toilette has been preserved, the composition of which was composed of aromas of myrrh, calamus, juniper, cypress, coriander, mint and honey. The ancient Egyptians also used anise, cedar, cumin, grapes, and even onions and garlic. The first written document containing a list of some kind of cosmetic rules was found in one of the Egyptian tombs. It was a giant recipe written 1500 BC. e. priests on a papyrus about 21 meters long. The papyrus contained a number of cosmetic recipes: how to smooth out wrinkles, dye hair, increase hair growth, remove warts, etc. Some of the recipes given in this papyrus have not lost their significance even today.
Egypt was obviously one of the first, but by no means the only country where people learned how to make and use cosmetics. Cosmetics were also widely used in the countries of the Ancient East. In ancient Persia, using plants, fragrant oils, ointments, and paints were made. Such well-known herbal cosmetics as henna and basma come from ancient Persia. In the Ancient East, the art of decorating the face and body reached its highest development. In a set of cosmetics oriental woman included seven decorative products: henna, basma, nail paint, white, blush, antimony, aromatic mixtures. The women of ancient India blackened their eyebrows, dyed their eyelashes, gilded their lips and covered their teeth with brown paint. Strictly speaking, spirits in the modern sense of the word, neither Egypt, nor Greece, nor later Rome, have yet known. Perfumes were created by Arab alchemists, who discovered an effective and still used method for obtaining essential oils using steam distillation.
In ancient China adult woman she had to make up very heavily: there was a lot of white on her face, black eyebrows in the shape of an arc, her teeth covered with a golden mixture, which gave them a characteristic shine. Women spared no effort and money for cosmetics, which they used very actively. To look sophisticated, high society women covered their faces. rice powder, and cheeks with blush, painted lips with lipstick colors " ripe cherries". Naturalness and "daytime makeup" in Ancient China was out of the question, especially among those Chinese women who grew up in an aristocratic environment. Those who are simpler tried to keep up with them and found everything they needed in natural cosmetics, since it was available In ancient China, women from childhood were taught the rules of applying cosmetics, the ability to use blush, whitewash, ink.Cosmetic products and tools there were the same abundance as in Egypt, Rome and Greece.
The art of Japan's geishas and their make-up are centuries old. Its origins begin around 1600 BC. The classic look of a geisha is a white face, red lips, dark eyes and styled hair. The Japanese used lipstick made from wood wax, camellia seed oil, musk, camphor. Among the nobility, it was customary to completely shave off the eyebrows, draw green circles on the forehead.
The ideal of beauty that existed in ancient Japan was strikingly different from today's standards. There was no talk of natural, unadorned beauty in the circles of the highest aristocracy. Women used cosmetics and did it very actively. Japanese beauties thickly whitened their skin, covering up all the defects on the face and chest, mascara was drawn around the forehead along the edge of the hair, eyebrows were shaved off and short, thick black lines were drawn instead. The hair was collected in a heavy high knot, which was supported by a long patterned stick. From about 12-14 years old, after undergoing a special ceremony, the girls began to blacken their teeth.
Since then, a lot has changed there, the influence of the new time and the idea of beauty have not escaped - now Japanese women, like Western beauties, on the contrary, strive for absolute whiteness of teeth. But nevertheless, the extraordinary vitality in Japan of national traditions makes itself felt in the firmness of the canons of beauty and, as a result, in addictions to certain types cosmetics: the porcelain whiteness of the skin of the face is still in favor, and it is the brightening lines of cosmetics that are especially popular in Japan to this day.
Although Greek mythology attributes the invention of means for maintaining beauty to the goddess Aphrodite, and their distribution to Elena the Beautiful, the Greeks owe their acquaintance with cosmetics to the empire of the pharaohs. In Ancient Hellas, the cult of the beauty of the human body reached its apogee. The Greeks coined the word "cosmetics", which means "the art of decorating". Story Ancient Greece also introduces us to the origin of the science of "cosmetology". In ancient Greece and Rome, slaves who decorated the body and face of women were called cosmetologists. Women turned to cosmetics for help, who by any means tried to mask cosmetic flaws with the help of some ointments, lotions and mixtures reminiscent of modern make-up. Some components of these recipes are still used in cosmetology. However, we emphasize that cosmetics are not only decorative, but also medicinal products. In Greece, there were qualified perfumers who prepared cosmetic drugs according to special recipes. This was also done by very famous people. For example, beautiful perfumes were composed by the Greek Theophrastus from the city of Erez (372-287 BC), the founder of the science of botany, a student of Aristotle. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, wrote essays on cosmetology in four volumes, which dealt with cosmetic deficiencies and known cosmetics. In his writings you can find tips and recipes for ointments for women with aging skin, remedies for eliminating odor from the nose, mouth, compositions for brushing teeth, softening the skin and eliminating age spots face, as well as a huge number of other cosmetic recipes.
Cosmetics flourished in Ancient Rome. The Romans, with their characteristic thoroughness, took up cosmetics in earnest in the 1st century AD. Pliny the Elder described in detail the cosmetics that the Romans used every day: a cleansing and moisturizing lotion made from almond oil with milk, lead white for the face, special soap for hair, coloring them red, as well as tooth powder made from pumice and crushed horn. In particular, he wrote: "Small snails dried in the sun on tiles, then crushed into powder and diluted with bean decoction, are an excellent cosmetic product that makes the skin white and tender." The famous Roman physician Galen (circa 130-200 AD) left scientific works on cosmetics to posterity. He is the author of the first systematic textbook on cosmetics. In his works, Galen singled out cosmetics for the purpose of masking cosmetic imperfections(i.e. make-up) and cosmetics to preserve natural beauty, highlighting the connection between cosmetics and medicine. Galen proposed a recipe for a cooling ointment, which became the prototype of a cream with a cooling effect.
Numerous beauty recipes are given in the work "The Canon of Medicine", written by the famous physician and scientist Avicenna. He not only developed the diagnosis and treatment of cosmetic skin diseases, but also proposed preventive measures to prevent them. Avicenna believed that many cosmetic skin imperfections are associated with general condition organism.
In the Middle Ages in Europe, the development of cosmetics slowed down, as the church persecuted those who tried to care for their sinful body. But during the Renaissance XVI century it again became widespread in Europe, although it was more decorative than medicinal - people began to blush their cheeks, paint their lips, eyebrows, eyelashes and sprinkle thick powder on their wigs.
In the 16th century, in fashion, along with high hairstyles, was pale skin, a strong blush that contrasts with the skin, and all kinds of flies and moles. This fashion was explained quite simply: the smallpox that raged at that time did not spare anyone, and every woman had some skin defects that needed to be hidden somehow.
By the 17th century, powder became especially popular. She was mixed with egg white and applied to the face in a very thick layer - the thicker the better. Queen Elizabeth I of England drew facial vessels on a layer of powder to emphasize (simulate, of course) the transparency of the skin. A little later, flies appeared - pieces of black and red plaster, which covered pockmarks on the face. In the 18th century, false eyebrows made from pieces of mouse skins came into fashion. Cork balls were placed behind the cheeks to emphasize the roundness of the face. With whitewash and rouge they even decorated young faces that didn't need any embellishments.
From the middle of the XVIII century. cosmetics began to develop as modern science‒ the era of scientific research in the cosmetic field began. It was then that the King of France instructed the Academy of Sciences to find out how safe blush and other cosmetics are for health. The well-known chemist of that time, Antoine Lavoisier, had to do this. Later, shampoo replenished the orderly ranks of cosmetics - about a century ago in Germany, Hans Schwarzkopf first proposed a powdered version of a detergent, and finally, in 1933, a prototype of a modern shampoo was created - an alkali-free hair wash.
We draw information about the use of cosmetics in Rus' from written sources. One of such testimonies is an essay written in the 30s of the XII century by the granddaughter of Vladimir Monomakh Zoya (Evpraksia) called "Mazi". Along with information about various diseases and treatments, it provides body care tips, recipes for dandruff, remedies for halitosis, and tooth brushing. Plants known to our distant ancestors were successfully used later. The popular magazine Economic Store, which has been published in Russia since 1780, published numerous tips on caring for your appearance, recommended all kinds of cosmetics, for example, a decoction of Sorochinsky millet, which should be washed every night before going to bed, and remedies for age spots - camphor, myrrh, etc. In Russia, namely, in Moscow, at the end of the 18th century, the merchant K.P. Geek opens the first perfumery and cosmetics factory. In the middle of the 19th century, there were already several such factories: Brocard, Ralle (now "Svoboda"), and others. In 1908, a circular was adopted in Russia giving the right to engage in facial and body care only to graduates of schools of massage and medical gymnastics.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the Russian cosmetics industry has been actively developing.
Cosmetology as a separate area of medical activity came to Russia in the 20th century. This current science made its first steps in the distant 1930, when the first “medical cosmetics office” was opened in Moscow, which, expanding, by 1968 turned into the “Institute of Beauty”. And in 1937, by order of the People's Commissar Food Industry A. Mikoyan in Moscow, the Institute of Cosmetics and Hygiene of Glavparfyumerprom was created, reorganized in 1966 into the Moscow Research Institute of Cosmetology, and later into the Institute of Plastic Surgery and Cosmetology. In Leningrad in 1961 was opened " Cosmetology clinic No. 84 ”, which in everyday life became known as the Institute of Beauty. It was located in the house of Prince M.V. Kochubey on Profsoyuz Boulevard, now Konnogvardeisky, house 7, and its predecessors were departments in the Maximillian hospital, city hospital No. 28 and city polyclinic No. 81. Now the “first-born” in our city is known as the Beauty Institute on Gorokhovaya, 6.
Perhaps it was from the 60s of the last century that Russian cosmetology began to really get on its feet.
Today, cosmetology combines the scientific achievements of dermatology, biology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, hygiene and other medical disciplines in order to maintain healthy condition skin, hair and nails, as well as the correction of cosmetic imperfections of both the face and figure.
Cosmetology is also called a direction in applied aesthetics, whose specialists, with the help of a whole arsenal of modern equipment, innovative methods, medicines and cosmetics are engaged in the formation of a harmonious image of a person in accordance with the modern understanding of beauty.
Cosmetology, not without reason, is called a science, an art, or an independent field of medicine. All these definitions are correct, and yet none of them exhausts the concept of "modern", in which two directions are distinguished - aesthetic and medical (medical). Aesthetic cosmetology helps to carry out full-fledged skin care, hide appearance flaws, emphasize the beauty of a person, while the object of her attention are people with practically healthy skin. Cosmetologists or estheticians who do not have a higher medical education can practice in this area. Aestheticians cannot engage in medical manipulations that violate the integrity skin(contouring, mesotherapy, botulinum toxin injections, medium and deep peels, laser resurfacing etc.), treat dermatological diseases, prescribe medications. All these areas require serious medical training, and they are handled by a medical medical cosmetology. For a long time there were disputes about the right to existence of a separate specialty - a cosmetologist, the profession of a dermatocosmetologist was generally accepted, which was represented by dermatovenereologists who received special training in cosmetology.
Since July 2009, the specialty "cosmetology" has been officially approved by the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation and included in the State nomenclature of medical specialties. The work of a cosmetologist requires from him not only knowledge of the basic specialty - dermatology, but also the development of traditional and innovative physiotherapy methods and skills of solving aesthetic problems with the help of modern equipment, awareness of the latest achievements in the field of restorative medicine, gynecology and endocrinology, dietology, gerontology, the so-called anti-aging medicine and, of course, psychology. Increasingly to cosmetologists patients come with a desire to stop the aging process, to level the signs of age-related changes. Solving aesthetic and purely medical tasks associated with a person’s appearance, a cosmetologist can increase his self-esteem, get rid of complexes and other problems in communicating with outside world and thus improve the quality of his life.
At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, cosmetology received a new impetus in development, which is associated with the expansion of hardware capabilities. It, as a branch of medicine, began to pay attention to large companies for the production of medical equipment and medicines. As if from a cornucopia, new devices and methods of influencing the skin of the face and body began to appear, which were not previously used: radio wave (RF) lifting, different kinds lasers - from CO2 to neodymium, iridium, cold, etc., focused ultrasound with the formation of necrosis zones at the SMAS level different length waves - for epilation, laser rejuvenation, sclerosing small vessels, devices for local cryolipolysis, the use of microplasma technology in cosmetology, as well as the combined use of the above methods, often in one device, which in some cases leads to their synergy.
And, importantly, some methods have found application in plastic surgery, such as RF and lasers. Their use made it possible to surgical interventions less invasive, shorten the recovery time after surgery and achieve better results.
But pharmacology does not stand still. Take, for example, fillers - at the dawn of their appearance, silicone-based preparations and other non-absorbable gels were used, which ultimately led to many side effects, both cosmetic and in terms of harm to health. The constant progress in this area has given us a whole line of products based on hyaluronic acid- at first not stabilized, and subsequently stabilized, which made it possible to achieve a more lasting effect from the use of fillers. And now the next step is being taken in this area - the use of new biodegradable components in fillers - polycaprolactone (PCL) and carboxymethylcellulose, which has led to a significant increase in the effective service life of a biodegradable filler in tissues - up to 4 years. Unlike gels based on stabilized hyaluronic acid, which last about 1 year.
There are also new preparations for mesotherapy - hydropeptides that affect collagen synthesis and act at the cellular level, as well as on the verge of therapy and surgery - threads for skin tightening, with special notches made by a laser - like polypropylene, which can remain in tissues for a long time , and completely biodegradable, based on lactic acid.
You can talk about all the novelties that appear in therapeutic cosmetology for an infinitely long time, but the most important thing is that they allow you to resort less to the scalpel of a plastic surgeon. And, today, this is the most positive feature of the constantly evolving therapeutic cosmetology!
Khachaturyan M.R. Chief Physician Institute of Beauty on Gorokhovaya
The desire to stay young and beautiful is the eternal obsession of women of all ages. Historians have proven that the skill of makeup, the ability to care for your body and hair is rooted in the distant past. Even in ancient times, women learned how to use improvised means, such as clay and ashes, to invent masks for the face and body, as well as create elementary decorative cosmetics. In this article I would like to talk about how the beauty industry has developed over the centuries in different corners our planet.
Cosmetology is an art that makes the face or body even more beautiful. The word "cosmetology" itself comes from the ancient Roman "cosmetae", which meant "a servant woman who made perfumes and cosmetics for wealthy Roman women." For centuries, there have been people in various cultures who, through various bizarre means, helped other people look younger and more beautiful.
Ancient Egypt
It is historically proven that the ancient Egyptians made many discoveries in various areas of our lives, and the beauty industry was no exception. They are considered the pioneers in the field of cosmetology and the creators of decorative cosmetics. Archaeologists who have studied ancient hieroglyphs and wall paintings claim that the Egyptians were the first to invent cosmetics: they used melange leaves, bark and flowers to prepare essential oils, and then began to use them in the first perfumes and cosmetics. Historians also provide documentary evidence that during the reign of Thutmose III, ingredients such as fresh moringa and a plastic mixture of frankincense and honey were used to reduce wrinkles. To treat baldness and neutralize gray hair, the Egyptians used a mixture of resin and beeswax. Enormous attention in ancient Egypt was paid to relaxing procedures, massages using oils, as well as mud baths. In addition, the ancient Egyptians invented the first eyeliners, which were made from a mixture of lead, mercury, and ash. They were used by both women and men in order to emphasize the shape of their eyes.
In a hot climate, the Egyptians had to invent the first deodorants, which were made from ground carob granules, although only priests and nobility used them. They were applied to the armpits and between the thighs. But all knowledge about cosmetics and cosmetology belonged only to the high priests of Egypt. In one of the tombs, a “Cosmetology Handbook” was found, written on papyrus 21 meters long. Some of the techniques that were found in the manuscript are relevant even for our time. Also, archaeologists found the first reference book on cosmetics, which was compiled by Cleopatra in the 1st century BC. It was this woman, who, as you know, did not differ in natural beauty, skillfully looked after herself and adorned herself in such a way that she became an object of admiration for a huge number of people from different social strata of society.
Ancient Greece
The ancient Greeks, in turn, were the first to introduce the term "cosmetics" itself. Mentions of this can be found even in the Old Testament. Information has also been preserved that already in 840 BC. ancient Greek queens did their eyelid makeup. was in fashion light color skin, and women bleached it with milk. They also ground cinnabar to make themselves pigments for their lips and cheeks. Greek women used henna or gold powder for their hair. The Greeks have always paid special attention to water procedures, for which the first bathing lotions based on essential oils were developed.
It is worth noting that in Greece cosmetology developed not only in the decorative, but also in the therapeutic direction. Hippocrates left behind many records with recipes for masks and ointments intended for body, face and hair care, which included many medicinal plants.
Like the Greeks, the Romans also paid great attention to bathing. Women took baths with donkey milk to nourish their skin with protein substances. Cosmetology has developed in the direction of improving body and face care, a lot of oils and lotions have appeared. They were used in perfumery and cosmetics, in the creation of detergents, and also for shaping hair. With the help of some lotions, they even hid imperfections on the face. Steam baths were used to cleanse and maintain healthy skin. But despite the fact that body care, hairstyles and makeup were allowed only to the upper class of society, it was the ancient Romans who had the first hair curlers and the first masters of hairdressing. Women loved to dye their hair blonde: hair dye was made from toxic arsenic, extracts of various plants and goat's milk. It was in Rome that the first female cosmetologists appeared. They were slaves, whose duties included dissolving various, including toxic, substances in their own saliva, from which cosmetics for rich women were then made. Face creams were made on the basis of dairy products (milk, cottage cheese, sour cream, etc.).
The first pumice-based tooth powder was also invented by the Romans.
The ancient Chinese specialized in perfumes, fragrances and incense. This was due to the fact that the nobles liked it when the body and clothes smell sweet. During the Tang Dynasty, it was customary for all women to pay great attention to make-up, excessively dyeing their eyebrows and powdering their faces. With the advent of the Han Dynasty, women began to believe that the higher their hairstyle, the more attractive they looked. Often the hairstyles of Chinese women reached 1 meter in height.
Around 3000 B.C. Chinese women began to paint their nails. They did this with a composition of gum arabic, eggs, beeswax and gelatin. There was a rule in society - different social classes cannot paint their nails in the same colors. While the shades of gold, silver, black and red were supposed to be the royal dynasty, the lower class were forbidden to use them at all.
In Japan, geisha made their own lipsticks from crushed flower petals. Such lipsticks were used for everyday makeup: lipstick was applied not only to change the color of the lips, but also the eyebrows, cheeks, and eyelids. To make the face and neck appear white, Japanese women used rice powder. In the 6th century, the Japanese mastered the art of making incense from crushed herbs, ingredients such as charcoal and seaweed. This knowledge later served as the basis for the manufacture of more modern perfumery and cosmetics.
Renaissance era
If in the Middle Ages the church forbade any personal care and beauty, forcing each person to take care exclusively of his soul, and not of his body, then in the Renaissance, people seemed to have “gone into a gap”. Not only women, but also men began to actively paint and powder. medical cosmetics not paid as much attention as decorative. It was because of her that people began to die in France in the 18th century. The fact was that toxic belladonna was used in its manufacture. In addition, fashion was pale color face, to achieve which no less harmful white lead was used. This fashion claimed a huge number of lives that received lead poisoning.
Cosmetology today
In the 20th century, the art of make-up and hairstyles became vital for every woman. With the advent of Hollywood films, women have a keen desire to imitate their favorite movie actresses. Since then, the cosmetology industry began to develop rapidly, and demand has not ceased to grow to this day.
Toward the end of the 20th century, cosmetology became a separate scientific discipline, including the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of cosmetic skin imperfections. In addition, the branch of plastic surgery has developed rapidly, which at the very beginning was used only to correct such defects as, for example, burns or scars on the face. By the end of the 20th century, this industry became a reflection and demonstration of the strength and capabilities of man in the fight against natural processes. Also, the beginning of the XXI century marked the widespread entry into the market male funds and care procedures. If back in the 20th century cosmetics were associated only with women, then today it is not surprising that men also want to defeat the aging process and turn to cosmetologists for help. Today, beauty products are the most sought-after products for both sexes. And it's not just eyeliners or mascara that long years were and continue to be market leaders, now anti-age products have also become top products that help fight almost all signs of aging.
Cosmetology for many centuries of its formation has come a long way and reached such a high level that in some cases it becomes on a par with plastic surgery. Today results from cosmetic procedures last for years, and some of the transformations in the cosmetologist's office are simply amazing.
Posting ads is free and registration is not required. But there is pre-moderation of ads.
History of cosmetics of the ancient world
Throughout the ages, mankind has strived for perfection, trying to emphasize its beauty with the help of various cosmetics. From century to century, cosmetics, of course, changed, and with the advent of each era, aesthetic ideals also changed. What in the modern world is considered primitive, and sometimes even terrible, was at the height of fashion at different times. This article will focus on cosmetics that have been successfully used in ancient world.
But first, let's trace the history of the most relevant cosmetics of all time, because most of them originate precisely from the Ancient World. How did creams, mascaras, lipsticks, blushes, eyeshadows, powders, soaps, and nail polishes come about? What make-up, manicure and personal hygiene products did our ancestors use? Let's consider this question.
Skin cream
According to archaeologists, the first skin creams were made by the ancient Egyptians, who prepared tinctures from medicinal plants. It is also the Egyptians who are credited with the invention of the scrub, which in those days was a mixture of sea salt and ground coffee beans. Ancient Greece did not stand aside either - according to scientists, the Greeks came up with aromatic oils that the fair sex rubbed into the skin, as well as their own version of a scrub, which was based on fine sand. The ancient Romans created waxy moisturizers that included almonds, rose extract, and beeswax.
Mascara
It is not known for certain who exactly was the "discoverer" of this cosmetic product, but archaeological excavations have shown that the ancient Egyptians used sticks cut from elephant tusks as an improvised remedy. It was with their help that they applied paint made from burnt almonds, antimony, graphite and even crocodile droppings to their eyelashes. Moreover, the goal of the ancient Egyptians was not at all to emphasize the beauty of their eyes - they believed that in this way they protect themselves from evil spirits. And in Europe at that time they used a simpler and simpler way to decorate eyelashes - ordinary soot. In ancient Rome, beauties applied the ashes of burnt rose petals mixed with ash to their eyelashes with the help of date stones. Later, another method was discovered - gruel from crushed walnut shells mixed with antimony. They say that in this way the girls wanted to hide their vicious desires.
Blush for cheeks
Little is known about the history of blush, but it is known for sure that this cosmetic product originates from the women of Ancient Egypt. It was they who were the first to apply crushed mulberries to their cheeks and cheekbones. Following the ancient Egyptians, rouge was also used in Ancient Greece - girls painted their cheekbones and cheeks with beet or strawberry juice. There is even a myth how, with the help of rouge, the goddess Europa seduced the god Zeus, simply by taking them away from Hera. In addition, blush can be called, perhaps, the only cosmetic product that has caused the most doubts at all times: for some it seemed stunningly beautiful, for others it was absolutely vulgar. But, nevertheless, in ancient times, girls used any red berries available to them to at least slightly shade the pallor of their skin.
Lipstick
Lipstick first appeared in Ancient Babylon, it was then that the fair sex realized that with the help of various means it is possible to achieve a special sensual beauty of the lips. For these purposes, women crushed semi-precious stones into small particles. A little later, the ancient Egyptians also took over the baton - in order to achieve the brightness of the lips, they made a mixture based on seaweed, iodine and bromine, which was unsafe for health. According to unconfirmed reports, it was then that the expression "beauty requires sacrifice" appeared, since such a lip ointment was very harmful and was even called the "kiss of death." Queen Cleopatra was an ardent fan of lipstick, having come up with her own and very original remedy: red beetles crushed in a mortar were mixed with ant eggs, and to give a shimmering sheen she added fish scales. Following the Egyptians, the ancient Greeks also got carried away with lipstick, using henna, red clay and even rust to obtain this cosmetic product. The resulting mixture was stored in small boxes and applied to the lips with special sticks.
Eyeshadow
Archaeological excavations have shown that eyeshadow was first used in ancient Egypt. To achieve the brightness of the eyes, the Egyptians used soot and antimony. It was in this country that the cult ruled beautiful eyes, so it's no surprise that the history of eyeshadow dates back to Ancient Egypt. The eyes were brought not only by women, but also by men. In addition to the popular means generally accepted in those days, such as soot and antimony, ash, ocher, copper and burnt almonds were used. The resulting mass was applied to the eyelids using specially designed sticks. It is also a fact that the Egyptians used eye shadow not only for beauty, but also as a remedy for diseases and to improve vision. Following Ancient Egypt, the fashion for shadows was adopted by Ancient Rome. Their composition was about the same, but, in addition, the ancient Romans believed that shadows were able to protect a person from the evil eye.
Face powder
For many millennia, a white complexion has been considered the standard of femininity. The history of powder also dates back to the ancient world, when girls covered their faces with white clay. Moreover, initially this was done not for beauty, but as protection from evil spirits. Here we return again to Queen Cleopatra, who whitened her face not with chalk or clay (this was considered the lot of the lower classes of the Egyptians), but with crocodile droppings. In ancient Rome, noble beauties used lead white with honey as powder, but not everyone could afford this mixture, and it was also considered hazardous to health, so most girls managed with ordinary wheat flour and powdered rice. Fashionistas of ancient Greece prepared powder from dry white clay with the addition of ocher (to give the face a milky matte color).
Body soap
Humanity has maintained the cleanliness of the body at all times, but soap in its direct sense did not appear immediately. For example, in ancient Greece, hygiene was observed with the help of fine sand, and in ancient Egypt - beeswax powder, which was diluted in water. Who owns the invention of soap - the opinions of scientists differed. Most scientists argue that the right of "discoverers" belongs to Ancient Rome, it was there that a mixture of melted fat with the ashes of sea plants was invented - a remedy that foamed in water, resulting in a fairly high-quality soap. This version is also confirmed by archaeologists - excavations have shown that the first soap factories were located precisely on the territory of Ancient Rome, in the famous Pompeii. The consistency of soap in those days was not solid, but semi-liquid, but it foamed beautifully thanks to the juice of the most ancient medicinal plant called "soap".
Nail polish
About who exactly owns this invention, the opinions of scientists differ, but archaeological excavations prove that various means, used as nail polish, were extremely popular in the ancient world. So, for example, many mummies were found with long manicured nails. Moreover, it was possible to establish that the color of the varnish directly depended on the class to which the person belonged. In ancient Egypt, noble people painted their nails bright red, while commoners were allowed to use only pale shades. Queen Cleopatra did manicures exclusively terracotta color with the help of ocher and a mixture of bacon with dracaena juice. In ancient China, a mass was used as nail polish, which included gelatin, wax, egg yolk and natural dye. Moreover, well-groomed long and painted nails were considered a sign of wisdom and proximity to the gods. That is why only the nobility were allowed to do manicures, this luxury was strictly forbidden to the lower class. Lacquer was made from wax, egg whites, gelatin and plant sap, after which it was applied to the nails with the help of bamboo or jade sticks.
Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt can rightly be considered the birthplace of cosmetics. But not everyone was allowed to use it in those days. Initially, this was considered the privilege of the priests, who owned the secrets of making cosmetics. First of all, cosmetics served them for ceremonies, rituals and sacred ablutions. To do this, the priests used oils and ointments made on the basis of various plants, which were rather symbolic and healing. For example, paint on the eyelids was considered a protection against inflammation of the eyes, and drawn arrows were used as a talisman against dark forces. To protect themselves from the evil eye, the priests dyed their hair in dark color blood of black animals. It was then that the first toilet boxes with cells appeared, where various cosmetics were stored: ointments, paints, incense, creams, pumice, etc. It is curious that the priests had their own god of cosmetics with a very original name Bes.
Later, the Egyptians of the upper class began to use cosmetics, taking care of their own appearance took almost the first place among them. Particular attention was paid to the skin, noble persons rubbed the face and body with river silt, after which they cleansed the skin with a special mixture of clay and ash, ending the procedure by rubbing aromatic oils into the skin. Their goal was not only to exfoliate the skin, but also to achieve its pallor. For a whitening effect, the Egyptians applied special oily masks from ocher, capable of hiding various defects, and drew barely noticeable blue lines that were supposed to mean veins. Thus, noble persons emphasized the contrast between their own veins and the pallor of the skin. For personal hygiene, the Egyptians used ashes and bricks crushed into dust - such products perfectly cleansed the body of dirt and dust. To protect your face from bright sun and dry wind, sheep fat and various oils, mainly sesame, olive or castor, were applied to the skin. To give the skin softness and smoothness, Egyptian beauties were rubbed with creams, which included grated chalk. Well, so that the face acquires a shimmering and even matte shade without a single defect, the powder of sea mother-of-pearl shells, crushed into a fine powder, was applied to it.
The eyes were also given great importance - the Egyptians summed them up with paint from crushed dust of malachite or lapis lazuli, drawing an oblong almond-shaped contour. If the eyes needed to be made darker, antimony was used - to obtain a black eyeliner, antimony powder was evaporated with fragrant oils, or charcoal and ivory paint was used. As for eye shadow, Egyptian beauties used dust from turquoise, malachite and clay. If the powder got into the eyes during application, they were washed with hemp or parsley juices. WITH gray hair in ancient Egypt, they fought very simply - the skin was rubbed with a lotion of resin and beeswax, and honey and salt were used to eliminate wrinkles. Required attribute The makeup of the Egyptians was thickly painted with black eyebrows and bright blush, which were made from iris juice. Lipstick had to be an exceptionally bright red carmine color, for this, seaweed powder diluted with iodine was used. Detailed makeup rather, it looked more like a mask than a living face, but this was precisely what was considered the ideal of female beauty in ancient Egypt. It is known for certain that the noble pharaohs chose beauties as their wives, who carefully and scrupulously monitored their appearance and adored makeup and makeup.
A significant contribution to the development of cosmetics was made by the famous Queen Cleopatra, who had a whole collection of her own recipes for various cosmetics. She had a myriad of bottles and boxes with powders, creams, tinctures, paints and ointments, and several slaves served the queen at once. Cleopatra had a special weakness for a remedy that now causes bewilderment and even disgust - for crocodile droppings. With it, the queen bleached her face by mixing litter with white clay or whitewash. Cleopatra took water procedures, rubbing herself with fine sand with the addition of honey, and adding donkey milk to the bath to soften her skin. She also had great respect for henna and tinted her cheeks and lips with it. The queen's favorite pastime was the manufacture of various cosmetic products; a whole collection of pestles, mortars, jars and bottles was kept in her chambers. It is Cleopatra who is the author of the unique book "On Medicines for the Body" and the owner of a kind of cosmetic factory. During the excavations, millstones were found, with the help of which they ground herbs, pots for cooking infusions, amphorae with the remains of powders, jugs from perfumes, hair combs, curling irons, and many other equally interesting ancient things.
Cosmetics in Ancient Greece
The ancient Greek women at first paid great attention only to their bodies, since at first they didn’t really need decorative cosmetics - they spent a lot of time at home, and their skin always remained pale. In addition, the Greek priests had a veto on the use of cosmetics. But fashion remains fashion at all times, and very soon the Greek beauties could not resist this temptation, although the bright paint on them pale faces looked unnatural. Therefore, it was not customary to apply makeup during the day, but in the evenings, Greek women allowed themselves to shade their faces a little. They blackened their eyebrows with soot and gave their eyelashes a shine with a mixture of light resin and egg white. Cheeks and lips were tinted with antimony. If a woman was married, she couldn't afford too bright makeup- it was considered vulgar and defiant. Bright make-up was used mainly by courtesans to attract the attention of men. But later use cosmetics has become more democratic, and already many, even the most modest girls, went out into the street, applying zinc white or chalk and plaster powder to their faces. The color turned out to be deathly pale, so the Egyptians shaded it with cinnabar in the cheekbones. To highlight the eyes, ash and antimony, diluted in saffron infusion, were used. Eyebrows were necessarily connected into a continuous thick strip - this was considered the standard of beauty for all Greek women.
It is noteworthy that both women and men of Ancient Greece went in for sports, since the aesthetic side of this issue in the country did not allow any magnificent forms. In order to maintain a figure, the ancient Greeks used baths with massage, and also constantly followed a diet. In general, Greek beauties used makeup very sparingly, as it was believed that a lot of bright paint on the face was the lot of vicious women. However, it was in Ancient Greece that white powder first appeared, which was applied to the face in a thick layer - to add languor and mask skin defects. At night, the girls applied a barley-dough mask to their faces to keep their skin pale. In addition to powder, Greek women also used blue eye shadow, black paint for the eye contour, carmine for blush, white for hands and shoulders, fine river sand diluted with lotus juice for peeling, as well as aromatic oils based on mint and lemon balm. All this was applied very moderately, and did not look defiant. Particular attention was paid to the storage of cosmetics - these were certainly elegant bottles and carved boxes, which the ladies always showed off to each other, and could spend hours discussing a jar of cream or a box of blush.
Almost every noble person of Ancient Greece had maids who were exclusively engaged in the beauty of their mistress. Their duties included using cosmetics and makeup to hide skin imperfections. This position was very honorable, many simple girls eager to learn the secrets correct application cosmetics to enter the service of a noble person. In addition, it was in Ancient Greece that the first qualified cosmetologists appeared who were engaged in the manufacture of their own products, thanks to which they were well received in the circles of high society. Makeup among the Greeks was of no small importance, especially among the noble classes, so special attention was paid to cosmetics. It is Greek beauty that is considered classic to this day, since the Greeks knew how to find the "golden mean" correctly - very skillfully apply makeup in such a way that it does not look vulgar, but on the contrary - emphasizes all the advantages and hides the flaws. Greek women owned the secret of how to make the skin silky and properly even out the complexion so that it looks both pale and natural at the same time. For these purposes, they used exclusively harmless products, such as donkey milk, bread crumb, beech tree ash, goat fat soap, and many other natural products. Aromatic body oils were made from flowers, the most popular being roses and jasmine. Hair was also given special importance, various strengthening masks were used, and dyes were used only from natural extracts.
Cosmetics in Ancient Rome
In ancient Rome, as well as ancient Greece, cosmetics were also initially used very sparingly, without bright colors and pale powders. But over time, the Romans could not resist fashion and began to use makeup more boldly. Many noble ladies, following the example of the Greek women, began to get themselves special slaves, who for days on end were engaged only in caring for the face and body of their mistresses. Of course, the Romans could not afford to copy the Greek women exactly, so they also had their own beauty secrets. For example, they applied a special paste made from grated water nuts with dogwood juice to their teeth as a bleaching agent. Noble persons put a mask of chalk or white with the addition of honey and something fatty (for example, goat lard) on the whole face - this made it possible to even out skin color. The Romans also invented original way the fight against pimples and blackheads - they simply sealed the problem areas with flies, mainly in the form of a crescent. Freckles were reduced with the help of a rare remedy, which was extracted from bird nests. A more saturated solution, which became poisonous, cauterized the warts.
Remarkably, in ancient Rome, in comparison with other countries, there was no single ideal of beauty. Cosmetics were used by both women and men. The most popular cosmetics were wine yeast blush, henna soap for hair coloring, almond oil milky lotions, white lead, pumice stone and powdered horn tooth powder, creams based on vegetable fats, and much more. Wrinkles in ancient Rome were fought with a special ointment, which included fat from a bull's leg and linseed oil. Hair was strengthened with marjoram tincture, mint oil was rubbed into the hands, and palm tree juice was rubbed into the body. To whiten the skin, the Romans rubbed themselves with chalk powder, and to get a bright blush on their cheeks they used wine yeast and ocher. The eyes were lined with a slate pencil, the eyebrows were blackened with soot, and at night they put a mask of baked bread on the face. Rich ladies washed themselves only with donkey milk, as they believed that in this way they would save beautiful colour skin.
The ancient Romans were literally obsessed proper storage cosmetics, so they kept them in alabaster pots and horn jars. When did they come into fashion? blonde hair, the ladies began to bleach them with strong colors, because of which they often remained without hair at all and were forced to wear wigs. They fought with baldness in a very unusual way - they rubbed animal manure into the head. But blond curls were at such a height of fashion that many Roman women risked their hair. Later, a more gentle way of bleaching hair was invented: curls were moistened with a composition of beech wood ash with goat's milk soap solution, and then the hair was simply dried in the sun. Expensive wines, to which orange peel and olive essence were added, served as aromatic oils for fashionistas. Do not forget in ancient Rome and body hygiene. The upper class regularly visited the terms, where they were served by slaves - they rubbed fragrant tinctures into the body, did a massage, shaved, cut their hair and did makeup. Every wealthy Roman aristocrat always had a bath in his house, and not just with water, but with incense. It was in ancient Rome that solariums were first used, where they got rid of extra hair on the body - already in those days, unshaven legs were considered a sign of lack of culture. Particular attention was paid to hairstyles, each wealthy lady had a maid with her, who daily made her mistress an exquisite and ornate hairstyle using pearls, lace, gold and silver plates, and even semi-precious stones. All this beauty was sprinkled with powder for matte effect. Untidy hair was considered the lot of commoners.
Cosmetics in Ancient Persia
Cosmetics were widely used in ancient Persia. Women were rubbed with incense, and men smeared their hair with tinctures. fragrant herbs. Almost all cosmetics used by the ancient Persians were made from medicinal plants. For example, basma and henna came to us from this country, as well as the beloved rose water, the recipe of which was invented in ancient Persia. Persians also respected tansy, it was on its basis that many incense was made. Resin, camphor, aloe, musk, myrrh, amber, saffron and tea rose were on a special account. For personal hygiene, soap made from fat and ash was used, and antimony was used as a gloss for the eyes. Each Persian girl had her own cosmetic case with fragrant mixtures, white, blush, pumice, rose oil and gold foil for flies. Moreover, for all these funds, husbands allocated separate money to their wives - to have well-groomed wife considered a sign of well-being and good taste. Also in ancient Persia, they fought evil spirits in their own way - they fumigated the body with odorous smoke, for which they split grains of rue seeds in a frying pan. A curious fact: it is believed that this mill is the inventor of depilators.
Cosmetics in ancient China
Perhaps nowhere else was so much paint applied to the face as in ancient China. The fashion for makeup among Chinese women was so strong that women were forced to wear makeup profusely. A lot of whitewash was applied to the faces, the eyebrows were heavily inked in the form of an arc, the teeth were covered with a golden shiny mixture, the cheeks and lips glowed with the brightness of the colors. about no daytime natural makeup was out of the question, especially among aristocrats. Ancient Chinese women learned the art of applying makeup from childhood, and very skillfully used cosmetics. There were a lot of tools for this. Even children had blush painted on their cheeks. Such abundant make-up was done not only for beauty - it did not give the opportunity for mimic movements, since according to etiquette a woman's face had to remain impassive and restrained. Smiling was considered a sign bad upbringing, baring teeth was not accepted. Echoes of this rule have survived to this day - until now, many chinese girls Laughing, they cover their mouths with their palms. Naturally, with such a make-up, which rather resembled a frozen mask, the facial muscles were motionless for a long time, so the Chinese women, after removing the makeup, rubbed their faces with a silk patch to regenerate the skin.
Manicure was of particular importance. It is not surprising that it was in ancient China that the first nail polish, in our usual sense, was invented. But the luxury of having long painted nails was allowed only to the nobility - including men. Nail care of the head of state turned into a whole ritual rite with songs and dances. The slave, who was engaged only in the manicure of the reigning person, was in a special position in the palace, had all sorts of privileges, and was higher in status than other concubines. The emperor's varnish recipe was special and unique: a special glue was made from the juice of fruit trees, to which gelatin, wax and egg white were added. This composition was applied with jade sticks, which were supplied to the palace by the best merchants. Noble persons also kept personal slaves with them, caring for their fingers. But the length of the nails should not exceed the length of the imperial nails, this was strictly prohibited. Any manicure was allowed, even painting nails with drawings. Of course, after such a load, the plates exfoliated, and they had to be strengthened by steaming the marigolds in goat's milk and wrapping them in special silk cases.
http://s009.radikal.ru/i310/1506/05/0f7b5f7f5498.jpg
Cosmetics in Ancient Japan
Ancient Japan was seriously passionate about the art of makeup, especially for geishas. Japanese beauties thickly whitened their faces with rice powder to cover up all the cracks and moles, painted their lips with bright red or green lipstick (which was made using wood wax, musk, camphor and camellia seeds), thickly inked their eyebrows (or simply shaved them, drawing stripes with ink). ), and did a special facial massage. Married women painted their teeth with black varnish to emphasize their status, and men drew mustaches for themselves. It was also considered the standard of beauty to circle the forehead with black ink along the edges, at the roots of the hair. Hair was watched with special care, as shiny, black and lush multi-tiered hair was considered the standard of grace and beauty. Of course, it was very difficult to build such a hairstyle every day, so the Japanese wore it for weeks, putting small pillows on stands under their necks during sleep. To give shine to the hair, they were smeared with aloe juice.
Geisha makeup is a special art, although the beauty ideal of ancient Japan differs significantly from modern standards. No natural beauty, Japanese women used cosmetics very actively. From an early age, every girl was sent to training, where the child learned the secrets of applying makeup, especially if the girl belonged to the nobility. From childhood, a little Japanese woman knew how to use mascara, whitewash, lipstick and blush, as well as build a hairstyle in the form of a heavy knot, which was held with a patterned stick. By adolescence, the girl mastered all the tricks of makeup and underwent a special rite of passage, which allowed her to slightly blacken her teeth - this meant that the young Japanese woman was already ready for adulthood. Also in ancient Japan, they carefully monitored the cleanliness of the body, taking scalding-hot steam baths and rubbing aromatic oils into the skin. Only those girls who were fluent in the art of applying makeup were taken as wives.
Cosmetics in Ancient India
India is perhaps the only country in which the development of cosmetics has not undergone significant changes. Rich in raw materials for various cosmetics, ancient india since time immemorial, has used natural extracts and ingredients like fragrant flowers and saffron-based powder for the art of beauty, which Indian women still use today. Women richly painted their eyes and eyebrows with antimony, basma, coal and soot; hairstyles were fumigated with a haze of coconut, cinnamon and cloves; stained the feet and palms with colored crayons; and be sure to put on the forehead a spot of "tilaka" (for which they used cinnabar, sandalwood or saffron) with a beautiful pebble. This sign meant belonging to a particular caste, each had its own color and shape, it was possible to distinguish married women. Tattooing was also unusually fashionable - with the help of henna or other natural paints, the beauties drew various patterns on their bodies, even a parting. smooth hairstyles never left natural, coloring it red or Orange color. Lips were painted mostly with gold lipstick, the face was whitened with chalk, the cheeks were brightly blushed, and the teeth were covered with brown varnish. The first rule of make-up of ancient Indian women was variegation and brightness, so they always looked very colorful. Which, in fact, has not changed to this day.
Cosmetology before our era and today is a complex system of knowledge about the structure of the skin, metabolic processes in the body, about thermoregulatory, protective, excretory functions, about the absorption of biologically active substances. More accessible is a separate direction in medicine about the means and methods for improving and correcting defects in appearance.
Origin story
The word cosmetology has Greek roots - kosmetike - and literally means the art of decorating. As a separate area, cosmetology originated in ancient Egypt. Then mud, clay, vegetable balms were used as cosmetics, massage oils, various fruit mixtures, sour milk, beer, and especially popular were relaxing water baths, and dyeing hair and nails. It was in ancient Egypt that the first cosmetics guide, compiled by Queen Cleopatra, appeared.
And already in ancient Greece, cosmetologists appeared, the so-called “cosmetics”. Cosmetologists carefully studied the properties of plants, on the basis of which cosmetics were made - various masks, lotions, wipes. In ancient Greece, dairy products were especially widely used for cosmetic purposes. By the way, it was in Athens that the first hairdressers appeared. During the time of the Roman Empire, cosmetology began to form into a separate direction, which professional healers were interested in, and at the same time several research papers on cosmetology appeared. It was the Roman doctors who divided cosmetology into those used to eliminate appearance defects, and those used to maintain natural beauty.
A little later, in the Renaissance, cosmetics appeared, without which no woman can do now - creams, lipsticks, powders, blush. And today, cosmetology has reached a level of development where it is possible to eliminate or correct almost any problem or flaw in appearance.
Cosmetics by class
With the development of cosmetology as an independent direction, a wide variety of cosmetic products have appeared, which any consumer can choose according to their capabilities, requests and needs. Cosmetology, like any industry, is moving forward, developing new lines of cosmetics, and their variety is able to satisfy the needs of everyone. Now cosmetologists divide all cosmetic products into several classes - "mass market", "middle-middle", "lux", natural or treatment-and-prophylactic. Criteria for determining - price, prestige, comfort, efficiency.
There are no high requirements for mass-market cosmetics. It does not get rid of problems, such as blackheads or acne. Its main purpose is daily care for skin, hair, nails, and the main function is moisturizing and nourishing. Such cosmetics are inexpensive, and therefore accessible to almost everyone. The most common brands are L'Oreal, Maybelline, Bourjois, Procter & Gamble, Schwarzkopf & Henkel, Wella, Nivea.
Cosmetics "middle market" (or selective cosmetics) are not only divided by the main types of skin (dry, oily and normal, combined), but are also used to care for problematic skin. As a rule, "middle" is sold with the necessary applicators for application. The prices for these cosmetics are higher than for mass cosmetics, but it is often impossible to distinguish between these classes. This includes the following brands - Christian Dior, Givenchy, Chanel, Lancome, Helena Rubinstein, Guerlain, Nina Ricci, Versace, Clinique.
Luxury cosmetics (or professional cosmetics) are determined by price. Its cost is 3-5 times higher than the "mass market" or "middle market". The high cost is explained by the "eliteness" and the high content of selective products that are designed for certain conditions of the skin or hair. These brands - Decleor, Academie, Guam, Payot, Biotherm, Phytomer, Darphin, La Prairie - are considered very effective.
With natural cosmetics (it is also called therapeutic and health-improving or simply pharmacy) one must be very careful. The fact is that the criteria by which cosmetics can be considered natural have not yet been determined. In the same way, today in the world there is not a single cosmetic product without the addition of preservatives, which are necessary so that the product does not deteriorate due to oxidation or bacteria. Therefore, when choosing natural cosmetics, one must be as careful as possible, and above all, proceed from the needs of the skin.
Cosmetologists say that health-improving is exactly the class of cosmetics (it includes Lierac, Vichy, Klorane, Avene, Galenic, Korff, Nuxe, Bioderma, Rock), which:
- ensures the normal functioning of the skin and the condition of the hair;
- serves to prevent and treat diseases of the body from the outside;
- makes individual defects in appearance less noticeable.
Most often, such cosmetics are used to maintain a healthy balance of the skin.
However, it would not be superfluous to recall that you should not flatter yourself about treatment or getting rid of problems with cosmetics. The favorite expression of all cosmetologists is “the face is a mirror of health”:
- if you have an unhealthy grey colour faces, you should check the work of the kidneys;
- if the skin of the face is yellowish, there are clearly problems in the liver;
- acne, as a rule, indicates problems of the gastrointestinal tract, especially the gallbladder or pancreas.
In such cases, cosmetology alone will not cope with the problem, only a specialist doctor can help, and even then - having your test results on hand, and cosmetics can be used as additional ones in combination with the main treatment.
